Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Counterproductive Work Behaviour Essay

Organisational behaviour is the study of human behaviour in the workplace, the interaction between people and the organisation, and organisation itself (Dubrin 2002, p. 2). In most of the organisational behaviour literature review, the following five types of behaviours are often highlighted- task performance, organisational citizenship, counterproductive work behaviours, joining and staying with the organisation and work attendance (McShane, Olekalns & Travaglione, 2009). These individual-level dependent variables are present in most OB research which has a significant impact on the effectiveness of organisations. In my following essay, I will be highlighting on two of the above factors-mainly Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and Counterproductive Work Behaviour (CWB). I will be discussing on how various authors agree that different personalities and positive affectivity levels contributes to the emergence of OCB and that how different authors view the stand of considering all OCB as voluntary acts based on own accord. In addition, I will also be discussing the issue in which a consensus has been reached by most authors that job dissatisfaction is one contributing factor of CWB and that CWB, being defined as harmful in nature, has been challenged by some authors to be a justifiable act. OCB Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) has been defined as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization (Organ, cited in Vigoda-Gadot, 2006, p. 3) or as individual behavior that promotes the goals of the organization by contributing to its social and psychological environment (Organ; Rotundo & Sackett, cited in Vigoda-Gadot, 2006, p. 3). Personality and Positive Affectivity Personality refers to the enduring, inner characteristics of individuals that organise their behaviour (Derlega et al, cited in Rothmann & Cooper, 2008, p. 24) and personality traits predict what a person will do as opposed to what he or she can do (Rothmann & Cooper 2008, p. 24). As such, it is agreed that citizenship performance is well predicted by personality variables (Penner, Allen, & Motowidlo, 2001; Hurtz & Donovan, cited in Barrick & Ryan 2003). It is also stated that differences in citizenship performance by the employees are clearly tied to the differences in their personalities and attitudes (Landy & Conte 2004) and feelings about their work, also known as affects (Lee & Allen 2002). I came across this survey done by (Bierhoff, Klein & Kramp, ed. Murphy 1996) in which ‘first aiders’ who rushed to the aid of the accident victims almost immediately scored lower on a measure of egocentrism- the absorption with one self’s lives and family. They also scored higher on a measure of empathy in which they expressed a greater level of concern for others (ed. Murphy 1996). From the above results, I feel that various personality factors do influence the tendency of one to render help to others thereby performing citizenship performance which benefits the organisation as a whole. In addition to the above, I have learnt that the higher the level of positive affect, the higher the level of willingness to help is in individuals (ed. Murphy 1996). Besides the helping behaviour, I have also learnt that maintaining a positive mood in the course of our work may also inadvertently lead us to performing extra role behaviours (e.g.: protecting the organisation and developing oneself in terms of upgrading one’s skills to the benefit of the organisation) (George and Brief, cited in Lee & Allen, 2002). To my surprise, I found that positive affect is not just influenced on a personal level but also due to external environmental factors. These include the differences in shades of lightings at our workplaces (Baron et al, cited in ed. Murphy 1996) and even presence of pleasant smelling artificial fragrances in our workplaces (Baron & Bronfen 1994, cited in ed. Murphy 1996). Performed based on free will? Most of the recent studies and researches on OCB have pointed out that it is based on voluntary helping behaviours. However, (Vigoda-Gadot E 2006, p. 1 ) pointed out on focusing on the exploitative and abusive tendency of supervisors and managements to impose so-called ‘‘voluntary’’ or ‘‘extra-role† activities via compulsory mechanisms in the workplace, thereby refuting the conventional definition of OCB being performed based on ‘good will’ and free choice. In fact, some of these behaviours categorised under OCB may well be categorised under Compulsory Citizenship Behavior (CCB) (Vigoda-Gadot 2006, p. 1). By reviewing the Expectancy Theory (Griffin & Ebert 2005, p. 246) in which people are motivated to work towards rewards that they want and that they believe they have a reasonable chance or expectancy of obtaining it in mind, I have actually agreed with the view that there is much possibility that OCB can also arise from other motives, some of them less voluntary or less self-initiated. Among these motivations are the abusive and exploitative behavior of immediate supervisors and the pressure by management or peers to become involved in activities in which the employee would otherwise not involve himself (Tepper, cited in Vigoda-Gadot 2006, p. 3). CWB Counterproductive Work Behaviours (CWB) is defined as voluntary behaviours that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organisation (McShane, Olekalns & Travaglione T, 2009, p. 18). Job Dissatisfaction Job dissatisfaction is defined as a set of unfavourable feelings and emotions with which employees view their work (Newstrom & Davis 1997, p. 255). It seems that authors have a consensus on job dissatisfaction contributing to the emergence and high levels of CWB. It is stated that dissatisfied employees may engage in psychological withdrawal (e.g.: daydreaming during job), physical withdrawal (eg: unauthorized absence, early departures, extended breaks, work slowdowns) or even overt acts of aggression and retaliation for presumed wrong. There are many factors influencing job dissatisfaction which includes organisational factors like pay and promotion opportunities and the working condition itself. Group factors like the role of supervisor and co-workers; personal factors like needs and aspiration and how are these met, and how individuals views he instrumental benefits of the job also contributes to job dissatisfaction( Rothmann & Cooper 2008, p. 24). Though I am in agreement that job dissatisfaction is a strong contributor to the performance of CWB, I feel that CWB may also be induced by other factors like accumulated work stress leading to the emergence of violence which is one form of CWB. Similarly, theft cases in the company, which is another form of CWB, may just be a personal justification of the employees due to a perception of lost equity in the course of their work (Newstrom & Davis 1997). Justifiable Act Various authors held on to their individual stands regarding the topic on CWB. In most of my readings, authors agreed that CWB are actually harmful acts towards either individuals or towards the organisation itself. However, (Fox 2002) had presented a different point of view discussing the view that CWB may could well be a justifiable act which is clearly challenging the most conventional definition of CWB which is being negative in nature. (Fox 2002, p. 2) expanded the definition of CWB to include unintentional harm, as long as the act itself is volitional- an act which is motivated by other reasons to cause harm. Hence with this expanded definition, it raises the possibility of constructive CWB. In their article, they have considered on 3 categories of arguments which are moral issues, role conflicts and productivity arguments. I personally feel strongly for the argument on role conflicts. Many of the withdrawal behaviours may be seen as counterproductive in the perspective of managers or even organisations. However, these behaviours shown may be required to be fulfilled by the employees in the perspectives of their family and even the community. Putting in simpler terms, employees may be expected by the society to perform these behaviours so as to be able to strike a work-life balance. Hence, I feel that CWB should not be seen as just a negative behaviour which is purely deviant from an organisation’s objectives as I strongly feel for the presence of positive CWB. Key Findings In this modern age, to adapt and survive in a workplace, other than equipping oneself with the generic skill of problem solving, it is also vital to place great importance on understanding fellow colleagues as this will lead to self knowledge and self insight (Dubrin 2002, p. 4). By understanding what motivates others to perform OCB through the study of organisational behaviour, it will also in turn allow employees to gain an understanding on what motivates them to have similar behaviours. Inadvertently, this may bring them to a greater level of job satisfaction which also leads to greater organisational effectiveness as a whole. In addition, studying organisational behaviours enhances a professional or manager’s effectiveness relating to their interpersonal skills. Hence, if solid interpersonal skills are added on to one’s professional or managerial knowledge, it will certainly be a bonus towards an organisation’s overall service and productivity. Hence, information about organisational behaviours is vital to be known to the employees in organisations. Reflection If I were given a chance to assume the role of manager in an organisation, the notion of having OCB being induced by compulsion as mentioned earlier on will certainly be omitted by me as I feel that though it is an important goal of managers everywhere to make employees aware of the benefits of OCB and ideally, encourage it, it is far more important to conduct it through a legitimate way and not by other means such as abusive or exploitative activities. In this way, I believe conventional OCB will indeed be truly promoted as the employees will be serving and going the extra mile for the organisation in the most genuine way as I agree with the view that a person who engages in OCB might receive appreciation and recognition that induce positive moods and there will be a greater likelihood of repeating the OCB (Miles et al, cited in Zirgham 2009, p. 85) which will greatly benefit the organisation. A discrepancy often exists among managers and employees about the definition of certain work tasks being â€Å"in-role† or â€Å"extra-role†. Each behaviour may be different for different people as every employee in an organization perceives job requirements differently (e.g.: for service sectors), helping others may be a routine, but some may see it as beyond their job scope. By acknowledging this in the position of an employee, I will be able to anticipate this possible occurrence of conflict between managers and employees and thus, expand the boundaries for the definition of my job scope. In this way, I believe that my chances of managerial exploitation and workplace abuse by supervisors to perform compulsive OCB will be reduced to the minimum. Conclusion OCB is a stable behaviour emerging in workplaces and it will always act as a value adding criterion in one’s performance. However, it will only act as a value adding criterion only when it is performed through the free choice of employees and not by coercion means and negative external pressures. Thus, we have to be aware and alert so as to preserve the original positive results of OCB being performed, leading to a more successful and healthy establishment of an organisation. CWB is always seen as a conduct having an adverse relationship with OCB. However, as the saying goes- there are always two sides to the same coin; we should probably broaden our perspectives in our view towards CWB and accept the notion that CWB may not be necessary all detrimental in nature.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Microbiology and Unknown Bacteria Lab

Unknown Bacteria Lab Report Introduction The purpose to this lab was to identify an unknown bacteria from a mixed culture provided to us by our instructor. This study was done by applying all of the methods that have been instructed on thus far in microbiology laboratory class. Each test performed, provided us with some key information about the unknown organism in question and how the bacteria function. Over a two week period, eight prepared types of test media were provided to identify the assigned unknown mixed cultures. Not all of these tests were performed on every culture, as some were used only for gram positive or gram negative bacteria. The tests performed and what constituted a positive or negative test are as follows: Lab day 1; today in lab we obtained the unknown mixed culture â€Å"041†and one brain-heart infusion agar (BHIA). The first step was the preparation of the medium, the bottom of the BHIA dish was labeled with the bacterium number, initials, and section; then divided into four quadrants. The second step, we used the septic technique to transfer a small amount of culture with a flame-sterilized inoculating loop to the first quadrant, flamed and cooled the loop again then transferred a small amount of the culture from the first quadrant to the second using the quadrant streaking method as illustrated on page 18 of the lab manual, repeating this process until all four quadrants were properly streaked. Lab day 2; we collected our BHIA medium and began by identifying the morphology and cell-to cell arrangements of the colonies. Two different colonies were observed, the first colony was yellow in color and larger in size and the white colored colony was slightly smaller in size. As instructed, each colony was prepared for gram staining, one slide for the large yellow colony and one for the smaller white colony. After properly gram staining the slides as directed in chapter six of the lab manual, the smears were examined under†¦

Monday, July 29, 2019

English Comparison Essay

‘Superman and Paula brown’s new snowsuit’ by Sylvia Plath is set in the Boston area of New England and it’s possible that Plath based it on her own childhood as there are some parallels in the details she mentions. It is also about a specific time, sometime between 1939 and 1945, as it mentions the American conflict with Japan. The story has the central theme of the difficulty of growing up. Sylvia Plath presents the girl’s experiences as being about injustice, unfairness and the feeling that the world is not good, but evil. War and the conflict between individuals are presented as being equally important and destructive, war is a key part of the life of the children just as much as childish feuds are. Throughout the story Sylvia Plath has used colour imagery to represent the child’s feelings. Sylvia Plath uses the image of light to show what the girl feels about her home. ‘A secure web of light.’ It isn’t threatening; it is safe – at the moment. Significantly, the dining room window gives only a reflection of the room, so a careful reader might begin to think that the feeling of safety is an illusion. Whilst the girl and her family are eating dinner someone comes to tell her mother that she has deliberately spoilt Paula’s snowsuit. Again, the image of ‘a cold draught’ (l. 151) suggests that this is frightening and unwelcome news. Paula of course denies that it was deliberate, but her Uncle Frank and her Mother don’t believe her and even she sounds to herself as though she’s not telling the truth. Darkness is a key image from the end of the story that reinforces the child’s feeling of loneliness and sadness as she lies alone in her room. Uncle Frank’s face is ‘featureless’ in the shadows and the story concludes with a vivid image of a ‘black shadow’ engulfing the whole world. The story links with ‘Snowdrops’ (page 89): both stories use the perspective of a child to describe events and do not venture into the consciousness of the grown ups. Both stories look at the darker side of life and show the realisation of a child that happiness and goodness are necessarily predominant in life. The friendships between children are also important themes in both stories. In this story, the vivdness and colourfulness of youth is personified by the lights, as if a beacon of hope in the troubled society that the children revel in.†The lights of boston that blazed and blinked far off across the darkening water.† (Line 8) This metaphor, shows the corrupt and the evil that does occur in the world by â€Å"darkening water†, the fact that it is â€Å"darkening† shows the continuous acts of crime and injust always happening. However, with the sheer optimism of children and how they put immediate emphasis on the good, with their fantasy view of life the â€Å"blazed and blinked† show how they have this young perception that good will always overrule evil, which is not the case in reality. Anaylsis of key themes. An example of one the themes in motion would be from the realisation theme which seems to run parallel to the plot. â€Å"Where I knelt over the toilet bowl and vomited up the cake and ice cream.† (Line 96) This shows the sheer rejection of youth, as she realises that everything that she has believed and imagined has been a true faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade, that her hero won’t come swooping down to the save the day. The phrase â€Å"cake and ice-cream† is mainly associated with the happy memories of youth, whereas in this case it seems that because of the shocking image that she has just seen, she needs to reject everything she knows, everything she has imagined and dreamt of, and get in touch with the real world that contains despair, disappointment and ultimately evil.This shows a shocking maturity to the narrator. Analysis of the key characters. The key characters in this story is the narrator, as from a first person recount we get to know her feelings and her thoughts.Which creates a strong connection between thee audience and the character. â€Å"I lay there alone feeling the black shadow creeping up the underside of the world like a flood tide.† (Line 180-1) This demonstrates how lonely the narrator now feels, that she has lost her children perception on life, the word â€Å"black† is a stark contrast to the beautiful lights that she relied on to guide her, it shows how her optimistic outlook on life is gone, after betrayal and seeing the frightening images of the real world. The word â€Å"creeping† illustrates how this new view of life crept up in a sinister and stole her innocence. This gives us a perfect passageway into the narrators most inner depth feelings, by the use of metaphors that demonstrate how despondent and alone she feels. ‘Snowdrops’ is set in rural Wales, but this is only hinted at and is not a key theme to the story. It opens with a description of family life and the adult narrator focuses on the world of a little boy who remains nameless throughout the story. The snowdrops, which provide a key image throughout the story, are mentioned in the first sentence. They are important at the end of the story as well and a reader can see that this is a small child at the centre of the story, whose attention is caught by the simple activity of looking at these common flowers. The description of a family breakfast shows a child who is observant and who sees his world ‘with wonder’. Symbolically, the family home is described as warm, in contrast with the cold world outside. This story is about childhood. It tries to show how a child sees their world and also how different the world of adults is. It is also about how the realities of life encroach on their world and taint it with sadness. It also looks at the relationships between adults and children, especially the adults who are closest to children, their parents and their teachers. This is the only story in the Anthology that looks at the role of teachers and it gives a sympathetic presentation of how their job can sometimes be hard, when the personal and the professional clash. The story also shows how parents strive to protect their children from the harsh realities of life. ‘Snowdrops’ has parallels with ‘Superman and Paula Brown’s New Snowsuit’, in that both stories show children learning a harsh fact of life. Both stories are also about young children and focus exclusively on how they see the world. Some of the symbolism of colour, especially black, and of cold is common to these two stories. The snowdrops symbolise people, who endure difficulties and sadness, like the teacher endures bereavement. The children do not understand Miss Webster’s crying at the end of the story, but they are frightened by it. It is probably their first introduction to the experience of grief, but it won’t be their last. It is a sad ending to the story, as the boy experiences fear and happiness at the same time. It is in poignant contrast to the happy start to the story. The story also shows how parents strive to protect their children from the harsh realities of life. ‘Snowdrops’ has parallels with ‘Superman and Paula Brown’s New Snowsuit’, in that both stories show children learning a harsh fact of life. Both stories are also about young children and focus exclusively on how they see the world. Some of the symbolism of colour, especially black, and of cold is common to these two stories.

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Report - Essay Example This is made much more difficult because it does not guarantee that they would secure a job as soon as they complete the University education. The high costs of the post secondary education is putting pressure on the families especially those with low-income levels, and this may influence the educational trends of individuals in the near future. The contents of the article are reliable because it is an extract of a report in the Financial Post online magazine, well-known for credentials in the contents of the articles they publish. The author is also well-known and credible based on the information in his previous articles posted in the Financial Post magazine. The author also makes use of credible sources of the statistics he uses to compare the current and the past tuition fees; the Canadian center for policy report and Statistics Canada among others. The information contained in the article reflects the actual state of affairs for a Canadian University student in the contemporary society which the students can identify. The author uses the comparison of the present charges of fees in the Canadian Universities making the information reliable. Eisen, Wensveen, B., & Wensveen, J. (2012, July 9). Arguments for cheap tuition are not supported by evidence. Troy Media. Retrieved from http://www.troymedia.com/2012/07/09/arguments-for-cheap-tuition-are-not-supported-by-evidence/ The article is a presentation of an analysis of Ivanova’s argument that high fees prevent individuals especially from the poor families from accessing the higher education programs in Canada. The authors compare and contrast these arguments with others throughout the article and eventually do prove that there are better means of encouraging individuals to seek higher education besides lowering tuition fees. This, for instance, is because students from average backgrounds tend to have low grades that cannot allow them to join the higher education centers compared to students from higher social statuses with high grades. Policies that encourage students to embrace learning and performance in the early stages of their education may prove more productive. The Universities also have support services that allow average students with the qualifications to join the Universities by offering the financial support needed. Thus, other factors besides the increased fees prevent learners from pursuing further education. The data in the article are reliable based on the fact the authors analyzing the information are known policy analysts and analysts at the frontier center for public policy and have written previous credible works. The data analyzed are also related to the intensive research on education trends in both Ontario and Quebec institutions. The argument revolves around real life experiences with the tuition fees and the financial statuses of the students in the universities, hence, there are no assumptions on the availed figures. The source of the article is also cre dible, as Troy Media is a credible site for reliable information and data. Ryan, S. (2012, June 1). The case for zero tuition. National Post. Retrieved from http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2012/06/01/sid-ryan-the-case-for-zero-tuition/ The article

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Phase 3 Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Phase 3 Discussion Board - Essay Example These Techniques take into context both the least amount of time required and the most of time that could be required and also the costs or delays that the organization might incur. Theses techniques help the people who are taking care of the entire process in estimations of both the time and cost of the entire project. The Project that has been undertaken by the management to implement a general email system, with all the employees, the existing and the new ones, receiving new email address and an entire integrated model, This kind of change is known as a technical change and needs to be done in a timely manner as technology changes fast, if there are delays in such a change there can be heavy financial costs. Technology changes rapidly, therefore to bring a technological change you have to fast and cost effective. Whenever we start a project we have to keep in mind the scope definition this definition explains the scope of the project and gives us an analysis of what needs to be done. for example to implement an integrated email system you need to know all the new and old employees’ email addresses their designation, the kind of technology both hardware and software being used and other specific details, then you break this into small tasks such as the number of personal computers needed to be purchased, no, of new emails needed to be made etc. This is basically known as WBS that is work breakdown structure. This is basically breaking down of the entire project into small jobs and tasks and assigning individuals onto each of these tasks. it is also done by defining a scope statement. WBS, basically uses the 80 hour rule which basically means that all tasks that are scheduled and have been assigned by the management need to be done within 80 hours for example if new emails for the new e mail system need to be made it should be done within 80 hours, if the task is taking longer than that then it is not been done properly or there is a gap

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Recruitment and Staffing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Recruitment and Staffing - Essay Example One of the major ways of attracting potential employees is providing an integrated benefits scheme. Even though majority of the job applicants are keen on the amount of salaries paid, flexible benefits play a vital role of ensuring that qualified employees are attracted in an organisation. Such benefits include training, bonuses, promotion, insurance cover, holidays and inclusion of the employees in the decision making process. One of the major aspects that potential employees look for is the chance to develop (Wanous, 1992). It is worth to note that new graduates in the labor market do not only seek for employment opportunities that are in line with their skills but also they prefer companies that make them to develop. In this regard, companies should adopt part time training and postgraduate education as key ways of attracting potential employees. Another key way of attracting potential employees is through provision of adequate information that covers both the merits and demerits of the vacant jobs. This can be done through placing adverts in the newspapers and on the banners as well in the social sites. As the technology improves, companies have now embarked on creating websites where job applicants can look for vacant position and upload their resumes. In this way, a strong relationship between potential employees and employers is enhanced. Apart from undertaking a fair recruitment process, provision of rewards and other benefits are primary aspects that organisation should not overlook. In their job advertisements organisations should indicate the kind of benefits that potential employees will be exposed to. These include training, promotion, opportunities to develop, holidays, annual leave among other benefits. Additionally, companies should emulate internet as a major way of communicating with the potential employees based on the increased use of social sites especially by the young graduate seeking for employment

Friday, July 26, 2019

Love- The Gaps of the dispute settlement process of WTO Research Paper

Love- The Gaps of the dispute settlement process of WTO - Research Paper Example The WTO agreements include intellectual property, goods and services2. They state the principles of liberalizations along with the legalized exceptions. They comprise of obligations of individual countries to lessen custom tariffs along with other trade obstacles and to open service markets3. The methods of settling the conflicts are also prepared by them. The agreements tend not to be static in nature, however, they are renegotiated according to the requirements and thus newer agreements can be added to the package4. It is quite significant for the government to make their trade policies quite transparent by informing the WTO regarding the laws in force along with the measures adopted as per the WTO agreements. Numerous WTO councils’ along with the committees’ main function is to check if the requirements are being followed and the WTO agreements are being executed correctly5. In order to put into effect the rules and to ensure that the trade is conducted in a smooth way, the WTO’s method for solving the trade conflicts under the Dispute Settlement Understanding is crucial6. The countries bring into notice the disputes if they feel that their rights under the agreement are being disobeyed. Judgments by specially appointed independent experts are generally based upon interpretations of the agreements along with involvement of the individuals. The members of the WTO have approved to the fact that if they feel that their fellow-members are not obeying to the trade policy then in order to settle the disputes they will make use of the bilateral system rather than taking steps unilaterally7. This implies that it is significant for them to abide by the decided methods and thus value the judgements. The WTO’s conflict settlement conformity is also referred to as the ‘Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU)’. It is the main

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Macroeconomics and Microeconomics - Ethical Issues Essay

Macroeconomics and Microeconomics - Ethical Issues - Essay Example presently; GE has the record of being the sole company that is listed in Dow Jones Industrial Index that was also listed in the index which was original. Presently, GE is the sole company that is listed in the index of Dow. GE came up with the Radio Corporation of America (RCA). GE has the record to work in the power generation field which provided them the opportunity to venture into the new field of aircraft turbo superchargers. World War I marked the introduction of the first turbo superchargers. GE acquired the assets of wind power of Enron in 2002. The company also has its steps as GE appliances, GE plastics, GE medical systems and GE technical products and services. Unethical questions involved An ethical issue is regarded as a problem that is identifiable, a situation or opportunity. The ethical issues require a person to choose an action that may be evaluated as right or wrong among several actions. Such a choice often takes the monetary profit into account rather than the ap propriate conduct that is considered by the person. The nuclear reactors developed by GE have a fatal flaw. GE has developed 91 nuclear reactors around 11 nations. The probability of radiation from the designed reactors is 0.9 in case of nuclear meltdown. A documentary video was released in the year 1991 which accounted people who are harmed because of radiation and also because of the toxic pollution from the nuclear weapons of GE. GE avoids the testing proposals in chemical toxicity tests and it kills large numbers of animals annually. This argument was put forward by PETA. GE can also be held responsible for global warming. But recently GE has taken steps towards a stringent position in environmental concerns. Most of the largest green house gas emitters including GE failed to disclose the financial risk associated with changes in the climate and ignores the deal on global warming and other related issues which includes areas of corporate governance. The share holder’s mee ting calls the management to report on the green house emissions which includes carbon dioxide, mercury, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. The company has two manufacturing plants in Hudson falls and Fort Edward. EPA reported that the company discharged polychlorinated biphenyls of huge volume into the Hudson River. The company opposed the plan to dredge PCBs from the river. GE referred the proposal as absurd. GE was responsible in a fraud case in 1990s. Recently in 2010, GE has been under a lot of speculation due to discrepancies in their tax payment. Many have accused GE for differing tax payments on total profit earned. In 1992, General Electric faced its worse ethical lapse. The company was rocked by many pricing scandals related to the defense contract the company had undertaken. The public image of GE had suffered immensely due to the scandals revealed (Prasad, 111). To re-establish the clean image of General Electric, the company took various steps. The company drafted seve ral in-house rules that were of about eighty pages and were published in all the languages on the websites of GE. The rules and regulations were hailed as Integrity by the company. In the early 1993, the company decided to set up a toll free number, which was available to all the employees. The employees were requested to call up at the toll free number to report any unethical practice seen by them during the operations. GE has been hailed by

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Addiction Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Addiction - Term Paper Example They had higher forms of engagement behaviorally as well, when they were more involved. Generally, when one is talking about addiction it refers to a limited set of specifics that define the addiction, but the idea of the addictive personality is to see who may be predisposed to be addicted to various activities. Katz points out how addiction is also increasingly accepted and tolerated in society so that many activities and things which may have not been considered addictive in the past, such as food, exercise, work, and relationships, are now also accepted increasingly as valid addictions. Many experts according to Katz try to narrow down the definition of an addictive personality, therefore, by dividing addictive behavior into five conceptual categories: patterns, habits, compulsions, impulse control disorders, and physical addictions (the person cannot live without it) (2005). Katz’s article provides a general look at addiction, without going too much into specifics. Benshoff’s article deals less generally with the topic of addiction than Katz, and focuses on the population of elderly addicts. The elderly form social bonds that are based on their attachment to society from a psychological perspective as well as a perspective of natural social processes in which becoming alienated from other people and human society is seen to encourage self defeating behavior such as substance abuse. Benshoff shows how these social bonds are formed early in individuals and can be applied to lifespan processes including the elderly who are involved in bonds with society that require various levels, or respective lacks of, attachment to, commitment to, involvement in, and belief in societal codes or normative influences. As the author points out, in the case of the elderly, this direction mainly operates in terms of the present’s balance with the future: deviant behavior such as drug abuse violates the

Online discussion Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Online discussion - Coursework Example Another approach of saving time at the office offered by Grady is to ignore the conference voice calls and embrace the use of emails. This implies that the notion of Mindless Accept Syndrome (MAS) should stop by changing behaviors (Grady, n.p). The meetings that lack proper agendas should not take place and, instead, workers need to complete their tasks at the offices. Behavioral change is a significant aspect that will ensure workers avoid unproductive meetings. It involves urging meeting planners to use convenient avenues when calling workers for conferences as this avoids time wasting. Workers should also be informed about the impending meeting dates to avoid rush and unplanned attendance. Grady gives an example of a meeting being called on a Monday morning when workers should start attending to their tasks. This compels the staff to attend without understanding its importance or their roles in it. It is vital to ensure that workers have the option of not attending all meetings to allow them work on their

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

How Does the Iranian Nuclear Program Affect the GCC Countries National Research Paper - 1

How Does the Iranian Nuclear Program Affect the GCC Countries National Security - Research Paper Example the United States and the United Kingdom proved that Iran had the economic strength to support its nuclear program and so the worry arose on the consequences of such an expedition on the security of the world and that of the GCC countries (Hagel & Loeb, 2014). The resistance that the whole project has faced has been as a result of the concerns that such a serious and delicate process can cause to the whole world. While the GCC countries feel that it is their right to take care of the world by controlling such a process involving nuclear power, the Iranians feel that the concerns being raised are pre-textual and malicious and aimed at preventing it from getting the nuclear power that it needs urgently (BBC News, 2014). According to Hagel & Loeb, 2014 the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has expressed its concerns over the Iranian nuclear program. The GCC countries include the Kingdom of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and The United Arab Emirates. These countries possess a significant economic interdependence both in economic, politics, culture and also in religion. Since Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the UAE are major Oil exporting hubs, they have a significant economic dependence and setting of policies that govern the oil trade. On the other, Qatar is well known for producing natural gas and since this lies in line with the oil production it serves as a uniting factor among the countries. Almost all citizens in the GCC countries are Muslims which serves as a uniting and common factor to help unite them further. The political status of the countries in the GCC umbrella is based on the Islamic religion as it is the dominant one in the region. Though Iran is not a member of the GCC, the nuclear program has been viewed as a direct threat to the GCC countries and so they have resisted it in one accord. The national security of any country involves maintaining the survival of the state through the use of its economic power and setting of foreign

Monday, July 22, 2019

Foreign and Traditional Music Fused Together Essay Example for Free

Foreign and Traditional Music Fused Together Essay The United States is certainly one of the most diverse countries in the world from a cultural perspective. Capable of speaking 300 languages, the Native Americans were the early settlers of the American land. Hundred years after that, the Europeans, Africans, Asians and other ethnic race from across the globe arrived and settled in America. These migrations have contributed greatly to the patchwork of modern day American Society. Carrying not only their belonging and property, various cultures from around the world merge with one another through friendships and inter marriages of races. Through these racial interactions, various cultures took different shape and evolve into what we known today. To examine and describe them all would take years to accomplish and tedious since culture co exist with time, it evolve as time goes by. This paper would then focus on two dominant races and their respective cultures, namely, Hispanic and Caucasian. Since culture is a vast term to explore, this paper would then focus on the musical culture of Hispanic and Caucasian race. It would focus on how foreign cultures have influenced the growth and development of traditional music. Hispanic and Caucasian culture have influenced each other throughout history. It is often said that both cultures were the patchwork of different cultures put together during the colonial times. Hispanic culture basically speaks or pertains to a larger community that is comprised of different subgroups, such as Mexicans Americans, Cuban Americans and other races that originated from the Latin American continent. Caucasian or American culture is also a patchwork of different cultures originating from various parts of the world. This was brought by immense immigration during 17th up to 21st century and spread, through interactions with various races. This is the basic theme that these two cultures share together and its music, architecture and literature are deeply influenced by foreign culture. The land of America became a melting pot for these two cultures, a place for previous identities to be melted down together with other cultures to create an integrated, uniform society. Their culture was not forgotten; it was just shaped through the influence of foreign culture. E: Hispanic Culture Since the 17th century, Hispanic people have been living in the United States. Some of them were forced to come as slaves and those who could afford the expenses of immigration settled in the United States driven by the opportunity presented by the new found land. Though years have passed since the colonial times, most of them still cannot forget the trademarks of their former masters. Aside from their native language, most of them could speak the Spanish language and to some extent has been incorporated in their native language as well. Another characteristic of Hispanic culture that was influenced by the Spanish regime is the mestizo lifestyle (Gallarga, 2007). The term Mestizo describe Latin American whose lifestyle combine ideas, values, practices and other cultural elements both European and indigenous (rural and urban) of origin (Latin American Culture, 2008). Aspects of the mestizo lifestyle are widely diffused in the musical culture of Latin America. Violin, guitar and other stringed instruments are of mestizo origin (Garfias, 1996). Over time, these instruments were combined to those of traditional instruments being used by the people to create new ensemble types. Rural band from villages started to include playing the guitar, vilhuela, one or two violins and a harp. This kind of ensemble was an example of the changes that were brought by mestizo lifestyle. Additionally, hemiola, a common feature in Latin America music originated or a product of mestizo lifestyle (Mintzer, 2005). A hemiola is the simultaneous or sequential juxtaposition of duple and triple and rhythmic patterns with a moderate or quick 6/8 meter. This kind of rhythmic pattern is present in different musical performances of Mexicans, singers in Chile, and other Latin American performers (Mintzer, 2005). Not only in music does this mestizo trend is present but also in dances genres such as contra dance, waltz and the polka. March based music was widely diffused so as Catholics songs and processionals. Dance drama was another feature of the mestizo musical life. Being influence by 16th century missionaries, people in the rural and also in urban areas perform dance drama to honor individuals who are connected to local history, myth, legend and religious stories (Musical Migrations, 2002). Accompanied by local ensembles and dance genres, drama like this gave new kind of entertainment and meaning to rural town festivals throughout Latin American Aside from the Spanish Language, the musical style that was heavily influenced by the mestizo trend attributed greatly to the creation or identity of a Hispanic musical culture. Though different in use and meanings, Mexicans, Cubans, Chileans and other individual of Latin Americans origins, could understand each other through these customs. Moreover, this musical trend has become a tool of understanding and unification for these groups of people in a foreign land. Caucasian or American Culture Just like the musical lifestyle of the Hispanic, the performing arts in the United States began to incorporate wider groups of people (American Root Music, 2008). For instance, the Latin American dances such as tango from Argentina and rumba from Cuba during the 1900 and 1940. The afro-Cuban mambo was the first step in incorporating jazz music with Latin elements and was later on refined by the Brazilian bossa nova singers (Jones, 1999). There are also the African American communities who greatly contributed and refined jazz music. There are also innovative Americans who incorporated both foreign music and traditional American music to create unique music style. Aaron Copland, for example, developed a unique musical style through incorporating certain jazz elements with American folk music (Five 20th century American composers: 1900-2000, 2002). Influenced heavily by traditional Greek dances, Isadora Duncan redefined the rigidity of classical ballet and promoted self expression, resulting into an expressive and free form kind of dance (Marcus, 2007). These innovations and fusions probably lead to the creation of the Broadway musical. Unlike the Hispanic musical culture, American music was not the product of colonial times but was the result of immigration of various races in the United States. They brought their culture to this place without the intention of changing or creating music genre or style but to serve as a remembrance of their family and native land. It was for this sake that foreign musical style and other foreign cultures were introduced to American people. New musical genres and styles were a mere product of racial interactions. If clearly analyzed, this new musical genre or style removed boundaries and limitations imposed by racial differences. For instance, it is a well known fact that the African American community was discriminated and received less recognition from American society since their origin implied the idea of being a slave. However, when it comes to jazz music, contributions from performers like Billie Holiday, Miles Davis, Louis Armstrong and other African American jazz-blues singers were recognized and accepted by white and black audiences alike (Titon, 1995). Whether it was a European, American or other race, their performances were cheered and enjoyed by thousands of people. Through music, people forgot their differences and simply enjoyed the beat and melody produced by the performers in front of them. Performing arts in the United States representsed the acceptance not only of these people but also their culture. F: Similarities of Hispanic and Caucasian Culture Based on the facts presented thus far, it could be said that both cultures, when it comes to their musical trend and lifestyle were heavily influenced by foreign subjects. Hispanic music reached new heights during the Spanish rule. Elements of European and Spanish music were introduced to the traditional style of Mexican, Cuban and to the rest of Latin American. It gave new meaning to entertainment and performances reached greater heights. On the other hand, the Caucasian musical culture was refined through racial interaction that was the product of immense immigration that occurred during the 17th up to 20th century. Most traditional styles of music evolved and took greater form when they were incorporated with foreign elements (Titon, 1995). Another similarity that these two culture share in the music world is that their music were usually directed or composed for religious practices. In Hispanic culture, festivals were always accompanied by performances that always involved characters and values taken from religious stories. These performances were a direct influence of Spanish missionaries trying to convert local people. On the other hand, early religious sects in Native American such as the Ephrata, Cloister, the Shakers and the Moravians have produced music that somehow grow and influence other people outside their communities. One example of this was shaker melody entitled â€Å"Tis the gift to be simple† which was used by the composer Aaron Copland in one of his plays and which instantly became famous. The Moravians, who were considered as the most prolific and sophisticated when it comes into their music eventually helped in recreating instrumental music that was used in Old world German culture. Though it was quickly forgotten when the jazz and other musical trend came in during the early 1900’s, it proves that early music developed and was influenced by religion of early times (Jones, 1999). Difference between Hispanic and Caucasian music One significant difference between Hispanic and Caucasian music lies on the foreign influence that they received. Hispanic music was the result of long Spanish rule that they experience during the colonial times. A Hispanic performance was characterized by Spanish style of music and was later on refined through incorporating traditional and foreign music. It was only the Spaniards that introduced the European style of music to these people. On the other hand Caucasian music was the result of immense interactions of various races living in America. Some musical culture was able to make it way into the American society and was adhere by the people. There are other musical cultures that were adopted by American performers and incorporate them into their works that resulted in some unique and different kind of music style. Second difference that these two have lies on the venue of their performances. Most Hispanic performer took their shows on the street and urban areas. Performances on these places are always characterized by loud music and cheery audiences. Public performances were the product of festival shows that was always played during festivities and continued in big cities. As it develop Caucasian music reach greater heights in theatre or stage plays. Most broadways musical for an instance was perform on large theatre house and places commonly located on large cities like New York. Lastly, the difference of these two culture lies on how they perform their music. Hispanic based music is well known through their colorful sound that is always accompanied by different instruments. This kind of performance started in festivals and was later on carried through streets by artist who seeks fame and fortune. Caucasian on the other hand is mostly highlighted by the use of different genre of music and dance style to create one stage performance. Broadway musical for an instance used rock and roll genre to capture the heart of young audiences who have been introduced to this kind of music genre during their early years. Use in Classroom Education Using these similarities and differences, instructors could create a surrounding in which learning could be easy and comfortable both for Hispanic and Caucasian students. First, they could create music lessons that would break down cultural differences that exist not only Hispanics and Caucasians but also to other ethnic race. Second, it is possible that social relationship could foster and grow through incorporating music in their daily life. Lastly, through music, it is possible that children could recognize and acknowledge the importance of their cultural heritage. Children nowadays tend to forget their history and culture which is unfortunate. Personal and Professional Relevance Since culture is a vast topic to be covered, it was best that this paper concentrated on each culture’s music history. The first thing that needed to be researched was the influence of foreign music to Hispanic and Caucasian traditional music. The primary tool that was used to gather the necessary data was the Internet. Up-to-date articles and journals can be found in the internet and it saved substantial time researching using this rather than going to huge places such as the library. The books that were used for this paper were accessed through an online directory for textbooks. Since the paper was set to discuss foreign influence on traditional music of Hispanics and Caucasians, the research began through a search of sources that explained the influence of foreign interventions and immigration, since it will clearly show how the traditional music of each culture was changed and developed when foreign factors exerted their impact. The article â€Å"Latino music: A View of Its Diversity and Strength† by Dr. Garfias summarized the important facts about Hispanic music and provided a detailed explanation about the influence of Spanish rule in Hispanic countries. The book â€Å"Blues People: Negro Music in White America† by Titon gave a detailed explanation about the influence of African American music and how Jazz developed in the United States of America. Since this paper was set to discuss the influence of foreign music to Hispanic and Caucasian traditional music, sources that contained useful information were saved for the purpose. To be able to review them carefully, information that may be useful were highlighted and were noted down in a sheet of paper. For organizational ease, the information were outlined just like how the task was outlined. For teaching reference, this report has set a new meaning for being a teacher. The profession of teaching does not exclusively lie on the need to produce a lesson plan that would cater to the educational needs of the students. Being a teacher also means that one must some how create an atmosphere and environment that would enable the student to enjoy learning and would support the growth of social relationships. This realization was brought by the cultural differences that exist not only between Hispanic and Caucasian students but between other races. Cultural differences somehow impede the growth of education and social relationships of students if not managed systematically. Being able to manage cultural differences is also a way of promoting effective inclusion. Positive interactions among teachers, as well as students, contribute to a sense of school and classroom community. Inclusive schools seek to encourage collaboration among teachers for the purposes of planning, teaching, and supporting students. With adequate support, collaborative teaching leads to positive outcomes for learners in heterogeneously grouped classes (Cipani, 1995). Implementing effective teaching collaborations, however, is time-consuming and complex. Teachers often express concern about changes in their roles and responsibilities; differences in teaching style and philosophical orientation; and logistical issues, such as scheduling, planning time, and resource allocation. There are a number of school-wide strategies to support collaboration, including (a) developing and adopting a set of rules, responsibilities, and privileges pertaining to collaboration, (b) providing teachers with designated time for co-planning and reflection, and (c) offering preservice and inservice training in collaboration. In all of these collaborative efforts, understanding culture is a critical backdrop that the teacher must fully comprehend (Cipani, 1995). G:References American Root Music. Retrieved on May 2, 2008 from Public Broadcasting Services: http://www. pbs. org/americanrootsmusic/pbs_arm_itc_historical_background. html. Cipani, E. (1995). Inclusive education: What do we know and what do we still have to learn? Exceptional Children, 61, 498 – 500. Galarraga, J. (2007). Hispanic-American Culture and health. Retrieved May 2, 2008 on http://www. case. edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Hispanic_Healthcare. pdf Garfias, Dr. R. (1996). Latino music: A View of Its Diversity and Strength. Retrieved May 3, 2008 on http://www. pps. k12. or. us/depts-c/mc-me/be-hi-mu. pdf. Five 20th century American composers: 1900-2000. Retrieved may 3, 2008 from Boisestates: http://music. boisestate. edu/mus100/american_music. htm Jones, L. (1999). Blues People: Negro Music in White America Latin American Culture. Retrieved May 2, 2008 from Ipedia: http://www. ipedia. net/information/Latin+American+culture. Marcus, K. (2007). Music and American Culture. Retrieved May 2, 2008 on http://www. blackwell-compass. com/media? id=pdfs_HICO_Sample_Article . Mintzer, R. (2005). Latino Americans in Sports, Film, Music, and Government: Trailblazers (Hispanic Heritage) Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in Latin America, Volume I. (2002) . Titon, J. T. (1995). Early Downhome Blues: A Musical and Cultural Analysis (Cultural Studies of the United States)

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Effectiveness of Psychoeducational Group for Improving EI

Effectiveness of Psychoeducational Group for Improving EI Effectiveness Psychoeducational Female Chapter 1 Introduction Background of Study Based on the view of Johnson and Johnson (2000, as cited in Glading, 2003), a group is form by two or more individuals, who meet in face-to-face interaction, interdependently, with the consciousness that each belongs to the group and for the reason to achieve mutually agreed-on goals. Wilson, Rapin and Haley-Banez (2000), the members of The Association for Specialist in Group Work (ASGW), which is a national division of the American Counselling Association, defines group work as â€Å"a broad professional practice involving the application of knowledge and skill in group facilitation to assist an interdependent collection of people to reach their mutual goals which may be intrapersonal, interpersonal, or work-related. The goals of the group may include the accomplishment of tasks related to work, education, personal development, personal and interpersonal problem solving, or remediation of mental and emotional disorders.† Jacobs, Masson and Harvill (2005) had created seven categories of groups which based upon their different goal: educational group, discussion group, task group, growth group, counselling group, support group and self help group. However, ASGW only focus on four types of group work, which are psychoeducational group, counselling group, psychotherapy group, and task and work group (Wilson, Rapin and Haley-Banez, 2000). This chapter comprises the background of the study and the research problem that arises in investigates the effectiveness of psychoeducational group on improving female adolescents’ emotional intelligence (EI). The research problem enhanced the objective to study on psychoeducational group and EI. Prediction of outcome was stated as hypotheses. Finally, definition of variables, significance and limitation of the study were discussed. Group work is identified as an important modality because it is not only enable the clients to develop feelings of belonging and awareness of others, but also to increase their socialization skills and self-confidence. Besides, work group provide the opportunities for clients to exchange their idea and feedback (Nelson, Mackenthum, Bloesch, Milan, Unrein Hill, 1956; as cited in Posthuma, 2002). Compare with individual counselling, group work is more efficiency because it consists of several clients who meet for common purpose and able to save considerable time and effort. When the group made in a group setting, the commitment to work on specific concerns often has become strength (Jacobs, Masson Harvill, 2005). According to Posthuma (2002), groups have been effective in various helping professions such as short-term psychiatric setting (Bradlee, 1984; McLees, Margo, Waterman, Beeber, 1992; Prazoff, Joyce, Azim, 1986), long-term psychiatric setting (Waldinger, 1990), counselling for special populations (Akos, 2000; Firth, 2000) and with the chronically physically ill (Gonen Soroker, 2000; Levine, 1979). Variety kinds of group work are believed to be helpful to adolescent in making a successful development and growth which related with psychological and social issues (Glading, 2003). During this transition period from childhood to adulthood, adolescent grow up psychically and mature mentally. They struggle with various psychological and social issues such as cope with crisis in identity, extraordinary peer pressures, dramatic physical changes, impending career decision, the desire for independence and self doubt (Wasielewski, Scruggs Scott, 1997; as cited in Glading, 2003). From a group, adolescents have the opportunity to identify their conflicting feeling, realize that they are not unique in their struggles, honestly question those value they decided to adjust, learn to communicate with peers and adults, learn from the modelling provided by the leader, and learn how to accept what others recommend and to give of themselves in return (Corey Corey, 2002). In this study, the psychoeducational group is used by the researcher to promote female adolescents’ emotional intelligence (EI). The term â€Å"Emotional Intelligence† was first introduced by Mayer and Salovey at arose in 1990 (Ciarrochi, Forgas Mayer, 2001). The initial ability definition of EI as â€Å"A type of emotional information processing that includes accurate appraisal of emotion in oneself and others, appropriate expression of emotion, and adaptive regulation of emotion in such a way as to enhance living.† (Mayer, DiPaolo Salovey, 1990; as cited in Ciarrochi, Forgas Mayer, 2001). Daniel Goleman, a science journalist, published the best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence at 1995. His popular book lead to an unusual turn of event as the field of EI become popularized and broadened. Theoretical and research modification in the area were taken place roughly since 1998 until present. At the same time, some new measures of EI have been developed. Problem statement Based on the information from American Psychological Association (APA) (2002), emotional development during adolescence involves establishing a realistic and coherent sense of identity in the context of relating to others and at the same time learning to cope with stress and manage emotion. Adolescents’ Self-concept and self-esteem are the two major concepts that involve in the developing a sense of identity. In the EI perspective, they need to be self-awareness and possess effective relationship skills. Emotional skills are necessary for the adolescents to master in for their stress management and be sensitive and effective in relating to others. The four important skills that identified as part for adolescents’ emotional development are: recognizing and managing emotions, developing empathy, learning to resolve conflict constructively and developing a cooperative spirit. Recently, there are some studies provided some indication of the predictive nature of EI in adolescents. The studies found that the adolescents with high EI score were inversely related to aggression (Rubin, 1999; as cited in Woitaszewski, Scott, Mattew Roeper, 2004) and related to lower admission of smoking and alcohol use (Trinidad Johnson, 2002; as cited in Woitaszewski et al, 2004). Mayer (2001; as cited in Woitaszewski et al, 2004) suggested that emotional intelligence was apparently related to the capacity to organize emotions that can occur in peer relationships. These evidences show that emotional intelligence is related to positive behavioural and social outcomes. Psychoeducational group is a type of group that originally developed for use in educational settings. Recently, young people who join in developmental psychoeducational group out of sense the needs and desire to gain experience and knowledge that will help them better handle their concern such as identity, sexuality, parents, peer relationship, career goals and educational problems (Carty, 1983; as cited in Glading, 2003). There are some examples showed the positive outcome for the adolescent who received in developmental psychoeducational group. Baker, Thomas Munson (1983, as cited in Glading, 2003) showed that cognitive restructuring group enabled the students learn skills related to resolving problematic situation. Besides, the study of Hudson, Doyle Venezia (1991, as cited in Glading, 2003) showed the effectiveness of communication skills group to improve their interpersonal relationship. The study of Jenau Anak Pawan (2007) and Siti Hawa Mohd Yusof (2007) showed that strcutured group enable improved the self-concept of orphans, who age of range from 12 to 17. Thus, in this study, the researcher would like to investigate whether psychoeducational group enable in improving the EI among female adolescents, who ages from 16 to 17 and have low or moderate level of EI score. Objective 1.3.1 General Objective The general objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of psychoeducational group in improving EI among female adolescent. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives To identify the different score of EI between pre-test and post-test for experimental group and control group after psychoeducational group take place. To identify the different score of four elements of EI (perception emotion, managing emotion own emotion, managing others emotion and utilization of emotion) for Schutte-Self Report Inventory (SSRI) between pre-test and post test for experimental group and control group. To assess the validity and reliability of module for treatment for psychoeducational group. Conceptual Framework Emotional Intelligence (Module for Psychoeducational Group) Figure 1.0: Conceptual Framework This study consists of two sample group, which are control group and treatment group. The sample of both group are identified to have low or moderate level of SSRI score. Each group will be given SSRI during post-test, to identify their EI level. For control group, no any intervention is given. For instance, the treatment group will form a psychoeducational group with the used of module which will develop their EI level. After 10 sessions of treatment, both groups will be given SSRI again as post-test. The score between for pre-test and post-test for both groups will be compared. Research Hypotheses Hà Ã‚ ¾1a: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for treatment group after psychoeducational group approach for emotional intelligence. Hà Ã‚ ¾1b: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for control group after psychoeducational group approach for emotional intelligence. Hà Ã‚ ¾2a: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for treatment group after psychoeducational group approach for perception of emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾2b: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for control group after psychoeducational group approach for perception of emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾3a : There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for treatment group after psychoeducational group approach for managing own emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾3b: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for control group after psychoeducational group approach for managing own emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾4a: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for treatment group after psychoeducational group approach for managing others emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾4b: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for control group after psychoeducational group approach for managing others emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾5a: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for treatment group after psychoeducational group approach for utilizing emotion variable. Hà Ã‚ ¾5b: There is no significance difference between score for pre test and post test for control group after psychoeducational group approach for utilizing emotion variable. Significance of Study The study provides the contribution from the view of theoretical aspect and practical aspect. From the theoretical aspect, this study is view as an academic research that study with group work. Besides, the study showed the potential of psychoeducational group as an appropriate group work approach to promote clients’ socioemotional development. This study is an experiment that assesses the effectiveness of psychoeducational group. Thus, the outcomes of the study are able to serve as an evidence of the ability of group work to promote EI. This is the chance to promote the group work approach for the community of Malaysian to gain their trust on the group work’s effectiveness. Besides, this study provides the opportunity for researcher to assess the validity and reliability of the module that had been developed. This is significance and necessary for this study since the validity and reliability of the module able to guarantee its quality and effectiveness. From practical aspect, the study provides the module that had been developed to promote the development of EI for adolescent through group work. The modules are flexible and able to modify according to the needs of the group. For those helping professions who interest to implement the group for developing emotional intelligence, the modules can be the references. The effectiveness of module enables to generate the adolescent who possess with good emotional intelligence. It believed will be leaded them to gain self-awareness, not only able to make perception of their own emotion and managing their own emotion, but also able to guide them have a better interpersonal relationship. Definition Group Conceptual Definition A collection of two or more individuals who meet in face-to-face interaction, interdependently, with the awareness that each belongs to the group and for the purpose of achieving mutually agree-on goals. (Johnson and Johnson, 2000; as cited in Glading, 2003) Operational Definition A team that form by seven members who meet in face-to-face interaction, which lead by the researcher, with the purpose of improving their emotional intelligence. Psychoeducational Group Conceptual Definition A specialist group work with members who are relatively well-functioning individual but who may have lack of information in a certain area, with the specialization deals with importing, discussion and integrating factual information. New information is integrated through the use of planned skill-building exercises (Galding, 2003). Operational Definition A structured group with focus on EI theme and work with female adolescent who are low or moderate levels of EI, with the aim of providing members with increased awareness of their emotional problems in daily life and the tools or skills to better cope with it. Effectiveness Conceptual Definition An outcome which has production of intended result (Hornby, 1997). Operational Definition Creation of positive effect for the group members to help them improves their EI development through psychoeducational group approach. Emotional Intelligence Conceptual Definition The ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (Salovey, Peter David Sluyter, 1997; as cited in Wikipedia, 2007) Operational Definition The ability of an individual to percept emotion accurately, master the skill in managing own and others’ emotion, and utilize his emotion for creative thinking, flexible planning, mood redirected attention and motivation. Perception of Emotion Conceptual Definition The ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotion base on â€Å"situational and expressive cues that have some degree of cultural consensus as to the emotional meaning† (Saarni, 1999; as cited in Ciarrochi, Chan Bajgar, 2000). Operational Definition The ability aware of own and others’ emotion and perceive such verbal and nonverbal emotion accurately. Managing Own Emotion Conceptual Definition The capacity for adaptively coping with aversive or distressing emotions by using self-regulatory strategies that rearrange the passion or duration of such emotional starts (Saarni, 1999; as cited in Ciarrochi, Chan Bajgar, 2000). Operational Definition The ability to manage and coping with own strong positive or negative emotion and restructure such emotion with stability. Managing Others’ Emotion Conceptual Definition The ability to arrange events others take pleasure in, cover negative emotions in order to avoid hurting others’ feelings and make others feel better when they are down (Saarni, 1999; as cited in Ciarrochi, Chan Bajgar, 2000). Operational Definition The ability manipulates and controls others’ emotion for creation of a harmony and joyful atmosphere. Utilization of Emotion Conceptual Definition The ability to used own emotion in the search of life goals and make decision based on feelings over logic (flexible planning), using emotion to facilitate different thinking (creative thinking), Interpreting strong negative emotion in a positive way (mood redirected attention) and pursuing one’s goal with drive, persistence and optimism (Motivating emotion) (Sample, 2007). Operational Definition The ability to use emotion to solve the daily life emotion related problems. Adolescent Conceptual Definiton Individual who ages from range of 11 to 21 and do involved into a transition period from childhood to young adulthood. It is generally a time of self-discovery in which young people aim to define their place in the world (Ariganjoye Daigneault, 2007). Operational Definition Members who ages from range of 16 or 17 and identified have a low or moderate level of EI. They participate in the study as a member for control group or treatment group. Limitation of Study Below are some of the limitations of study that identified by the researcher: The samples of the study are the female adolescent who ages from 16 to 17. The module that developed may not suit with the other population. The researcher unable to control the confidentiality among the sample from treatment group because they stay with the same place with the sample from control group. Perhaps if they break the confidential, some input from the psychoeducational group may receive by the sample from control group indirectly. The sample may answer SSRI without honestly and bias, this will lead to the inconsistency of the validity and reliability of the outcome. Perhaps some of the samples are not ready mentally to participate in the study or be involuntary. They may act with resistance, reluctant or absence for the group meeting, which will influence their improvement of EI development. Since the researcher is a counsellor trainer who still in supervision, perhaps the competency of researcher is limited to handle more crisis issue. Conclusion Overall this chapter is used to provide a general introduction for the study. The background and the problem statement of the study had been discussed. Besides, this chapter state with the objectives and hypotheses of the study. Besides, the important terms for this study had been defined. Finally, this significance and limitation of the study had been discussed. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.0 Introduction This chapter explore the entire concept for this study in details. The key concepts for this study include psychoeducational group, module, emotional intelligence and adolescent. Besides, literature review of previous research that related with these concepts was organized to support the relationship of variable for this study. 2.1 Pscyhoeducational Group Psychoeducational group, sometimes are simply referred to as â€Å"educational group† or â€Å"guidance groups†, is originally developed fro the use in educational setting, specifically public schools (Galdding, 2003). The premised of psychoeducational groups is on the idea that education is treatment not only because of the knowledge acquired in the process but also because of the perception that may be changed as result (Young, 1998; as cited in Gladding). Corey Corey (2002) cited that â€Å"Structured groups focus on a particular theme and are often psychoeducational in nature.† Commonly in a structured group, the members are asked to complete a questionnaire at the beginning group to assess how well they are coping with the part of concern. When the groups terminates, another questionnaire is completed to assess their progress. According to Conyne (1996; as cited in Gladding, 2003), the major goal of pscyhoeducational group work is â€Å"to prevent future development of debilitating dysfunctions while strengthening coping skills and self-esteem.† Thus, it is suited to use in various setting such as schools, hospitals, mental health agencies, social service agencies and universities (Jones Robinson; as cited in Gladding, 2003). In general, it stresses growth through knowledge (ASGW, 2000; as cited in Gladding). Besides, it increases members’ awareness of some life problem and the tools or skills to better cope with it (Corey Corey, 2002). Carrell (2000, as cited in Janice DeLucia-Waack, 2006) points out that psychoeducational groups emphasize on support, learning of new skills, and how to help and be helped. The general contents or themes for psychoeducational group includes, but is not limited to, personal, social, vocational and education information (Bates, Johnson Blaker, 1982; as cited in Gladding, 2003). Some current topics for psychoeducational groups for adolescents include: loneliness, self-esteem social skills, career development, career exploration, children of divorce, grief, conflict resolution, bullying prevention, anger management, aggression, relationship skills, communication skills, prevention of depression, family relationship, cognitive coping skills and antisocial behaviour (Janice DeLucia-Waack, 2006 ) . These groups usually process in 50 minutes to 2 hours period and work best when they have a regular meeting such as once a week. The appropriate number for sessions is 8 to 10 (Gladding, 2003). To Corey and Corey (2002), the general sessions for psychoeducation group are about 2 hours for 4 to 15 weeks. However, if the group is for children or clients with a short attention span, 30 to 45 minutes session should be appropriated. Furr (2000, as cited in Gladding, 2003) introduced six-step process that essential for designing a psychoeducational group: Stating the purpose Establishing goals Setting objectives Selecting content Designing experiential activities Evaluating The activities or curriculum in these groups usually take in nonthreatening exercises or group discussion forms but it may present in variety forms actually (Bates, Johnson Blaker, 1982; as cited in Gladding, 2003). Certain technological application such as computer-assisted programs, video or audio transmission and computerized simulations take a role in the group to develop the members’ growth through knowledge in indirect way (Bowman Bowman, 1998; as cited in Gladding). According to Shechtman, Bar-EI and Hadar (1997; as cited in Janice DeLucia-Waack, 2006), adolescents able to take many advantages through group because they have a chance to relate to each other learn the life skills. Besides, they may practice the behaviours that generalized from the group into real-life situations. From the group, multiple feedbacks are received and through helping each others, their self-esteem may be increased. Psychoeducational groups are commonly utilized in school setting, for prevention purposes for students at risk (Vera Reese, 2000; as cited in Janice DeLucia-Waack, 2006). Psychoeducational group approach assist group members in sharing and developing coping skills and behaviours and apply such skills in dealing with new or difficult situation (Dagley, Gazda, Eppiger Stewart, 1994; Hoag Burlingame, 1998; as cited in Janice DeLucia-Waack, 2006). Through psychoeducational intervention, adolescents learn the improved way of functioning. They will expose with new cognitive concepts, ideas and exploration of their issues. The adaptive behaviours will be explored, discussed and practices for transfer to school and home. From the healing interaction of the group experience, their self-esteem, efficacy, and emotional satisfaction will be improved (Smead, 2002; as cited in Janice DeLucia-Waack, 2006 ). 2.2 Module Sidek Mohd Noah and Jamaludin Ahmad (2005) defined module as a unit of teaching and learning that discuss with certain topic, in a systematic and subsequent way. It helps the student able to learn alone and master the learning unit in an easy and accurate way. Module can be used in the non-academic setting such as the activities that related with self-growth, adventure and interaction. Thus, module suits to apply for individual or group in academic or non-academic form with the purpose to lead them for change in a positive direction (Rusell, 1974; as cited in Sidek Mohd Noah and Jamaludin Ahmad, 2005). According to Sulaiman Yasin, Saidin The Asma Ahmad (1986, as cited in Sidek Mohd Noah and Jamaludin Ahmad, 2005), the role of module is to assist someone to gain knowledge, awareness and adeptness which will lead to the improvement of management ability to achieve the objective that fixed by an organization. Thus, in this study, the module had been developed and be used in the psychoeducation group to assist the group members to gain knowledge, awareness and practice the skills that related with EI, with the goal of increase their EI level. The modules are important in this study because each module has the specific objective. When the members aware of the objective during the beginning of the session, such situation able to drive them to participate in the activity actively to achieve the goal. Besides, the modules that developed consists with assessment elements which will enable the member to receive and provide feedback that related with their achievement and understanding of the activities that they participated (Shaharom Noordin Yap Kueh Chin, 1991; as cited in Sidek Mohd Noah and Jamaludin Ahmad, 2005). Jamalidin Ahmad (2002, as cited in Sidek Mohd Noah and Jamaludin Ahmad, 2005) categorize module into four types with according to their purpose. They are teaching module, motivation module, training module and academic module. Teaching module is used in school setting, with the purpose to provide guidance for students to study alone. To develop the student motivation, motivation module is used by teacher, facilitator or moderator in variety form such as acitivities, trainings and games. Academic module is prepared by universities or colleges lecturers that complete with lecture notes and is provide to their students. Training module is a module in training form with strive for improve the worker performance in certain organization. The chart below illustrates the process to create a module. Set the objective Needs of research Identify theory, rational, philosophy, concepts, target and time period. Target creation Choose the contents Combine draft of module Assess validity and reliability Complete Draft Module Produced Choose strategics Assess effectiveness Combine draft of module Choose logistic Combine draft of module Quality module Choose Media Reevaluate Complete module and able to be used Note: Phase I, Draft Module Preparation Pahse II, Test and Evaluate Module Figure 2: Model Module Creation Sidek Source: Sidek Mohd Noah Jamaludin Ahmad (2006). Pembinaan Modul: Bagaimana membina Modul Latihan dan Modul Akademik. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia. Sidek Mohd Noah introduced a module that is more comprehensive for module creation at 2001 (Sidek Mohd Noah Jamaluding Ahmad, 2005). This model has two phases. Phases one involves the steps to create draft for module, whereas phase two is a level to test and evaluate the module. The validity and reliability of the modules are assessed in this phase. Only the module with appropriate value of validity and reliability will be used. For in stance, of the value is inappropriate, the module need to modify and rebuilt until the appropriate value of validity and reliability been achieved. 2.3 Emotional Intelligence (EI) Mayer (2001) in his article A Field Guide to Emotional Intelligence proposed a fivefold division of years to explain the overview of the emergence of EI concepts. From 1990 to 1969, the psychological study of intelligence and emotion were separate. During the period of 1970 to 1989, psychologists focus on the study of how emotions and thought influenced each other. At 1990, the term of ‘emotional intelligence’ first introduces by Mayer and Salovey and leads to emerge the EI as a topic to study. When come to 1994 to 1997, the concept of EI was popularized by Goleman and his book Emotional Intelligence become a worldwide best-seller and was widely copied. From 1998 until present, a numbers of refinements of the concept of EI take place and a new measure of the concept of EI had been introduced as well. Now, EI become a popular topic for the scientific research. There are variety definitions for EI. According Mayer (2001), recently two lines of definition had emerged. First line consists of the original approach that defined EI as an intelligence involving emotion. For the second lines, the definition is mixed approaches that blended with other skills and characteristic such as well-being, motivation, and capacities to engage in relationship. Mayer, Caruso and Mayer (1999; as cited in Mayer, 2001) proposed the ability theory and divides EI into four brunches: ability at emotional perception, the ability to use emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotions and managing emotion. For mixed definition, Bar-on (1997; as cited in Mayer, 2001) view EI as noncognitive competencies and categorized as intreapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management and general mood. Goleman (1998; as cited in Mayer, 2001) used the mixed definition as well. He proposed five-part elaboration of EI: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. The most common mental illness that relate with EI is Alexithymia. For people who suffer with Alexithymia, they suffer with the difficulty identifying feelings and distinguishing between feeling and the bodily sensations of emotional arousal. Besides, it is hard for them to describe feeling to others and have a poor fantasy life. They also have a cognitive style that is literal and focuses on the minute details of external events. High alexithymia individuals are identify to have a low EI because they unable to use emotions as information about their internal or external worlds and do not feel good about themselves (Taylor, 2001). Bar-on (2001) proposed four themes to define self-actualization: the ability and drive to set and achieve goals, being committed to and involved with our interests, actualizing our potential and enriching our life. His findings strongly suggest that the EI factors and facilitators such as happiness, optimism, self-regard, independence, problem-solving, social responsibility, assertiveness and emotional self-awareness are best predictors of self-actualization. He mentioned that the person who has high IQ does not guarantee that they will actualize their potential because his study showed that even EI individuals with average or even below-average cognitive capacity are able to actualize their potential in life. Empathy is one of the five domains of EI that proposed by Goleman (1995), which defined as ability recognizing emotions in others and the ability that built on emotional self-awareness and it serve as the fundamental â€Å"people skills†. Empathic accuracy is a measure of the ability to accurately infer the specific content of â€Å"reading† people’s thoughts and feelings (Ickes, 1997; as cited in Flury Ickes, 2001). These aspects are closely related with friendship and dating relationship (Flury Ickes, 2001). Ick

Saturday, July 20, 2019

Comparative Criminal Justice: United states and China

Comparative Criminal Justice: United states and China Compare and contrast two different types of criminal justice systems. The two criminal justice systems that shall be discussed in this paper are those of the United States and that of the Peoples Republic of China. When comparing and contrasting these two systems one should start with the premises that both are instituted in their reciprocal countries in the attempt to curb the proliferation of crime, offenders and deter potential offenders. Both the U.S. and Chinas criminal justice systems make use of a court system, police enforcement organizations and detention and correctional facilities on a regional biases. However this is as much as similarities go as the two systems are radically different since they are based on ideologically opposing government structures. The U.S government is based on a free market capitalist economy supported by a representative democracy. On the other hand that of China is founded on a social communist ideology. As for demographic figures, the U.S. has roughly 355 million citizens while China has over one billion, which makes up one fourth of the world population. Klaus MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009), in his book Criminal Justice in China, states that Peoples Republic of China (P.R.C.) was established as a socialist country in 1949. From that point onwards efforts have been made to enact basic laws concerning criminal justice administration and enforced nationwide. The U.S. government is hierarchally based on a unified organization where power is shared between the federal and state governments. Therefore this means that the political system secures autonomy of each state in the U.S. but at the same time adopting a centralized government (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The U.S. justice system is derived from the British common law tradition. Common law is the law that is agreed upon by the common people and exists in two forms, Lex Scripta (written law) and Lex non Scripta (unwritten law). On the other hand MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009), says that the Chinese justice system is quite difficult to put under one unitary system. This is due to the fact that the Chinese criminal justice system was repeatedly reorganized in the wake of political changes and internal party disputes. MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009) also notes that the Chinese justice system under socialism is not an independent administrative system but was integrated into a network of social control and political mobilization. The Chinese Criminal Law is based on the ideological precepts of Marxism, Leninism and Mao Zedong. Its tasks are to use punishments to resist against all revolutionary or criminal acts in order to safeguard the system of the peoples democratic dictatorship. The police forces of the United States are the successors of Militias originally instituted in the early colonies to protect the population and control the Native Americans. The different forming States developed their own security forces and these operated autonomously. Major cities instituted their own police forces, which functioned under the control of a city government (Gaines and Miller, 2006). Currently the U.S. police forces are structured on local/city/county and federal/state levels, thus having a federal system. All local policing duties are shared between local municipalities and counties. Cities, towns and villages have the capability to institute their own police forces, while others, usually rural localities, rely on a county Sheriffs department for the task of enforcement and policing. Usually the size of police forces in the U.S. is directly proportional to the population of the area being controlled. The 50 States forming the U.S. also have their own police forces that are ascribed to different regions and often patrolling undeveloped rural areas. The job of such agencies include investigating crimes against the state such as alcohol licensing violations or welfare fraud, fish and game violations, and highway traffic infractions (Gaines and Miller, 2006). According to a statistic of the U.S. Department of Justice (2008), on average the ratio of police to population in the U.S. is about 2.3 officers per thousand residents, however larger cities have higher ratios. That force ratio has remained steady for nearly three decades at around 2.21-2.34 police officers per 1000 civilian population. Next up on the U.S. hierarchal police system is the Federal Governments police force that subdivided into various other agencies. There is the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which is independent of any administration. The F.B.I. intervenes when federal laws are infringed, an interstate crime is committed, or if national security is threatened. However the last case scenario has been taken over by the Department of Homeland Security established after the attacks of September 11th 2001. The U.S. has about 20 federal law enforcement agencies, which also include the Internal Revenue Service Criminal Investigation, U.S. Secret Service, Postal Inspection Service and U.S. Marshals Service. Further more there exist the Drug Enforcement Agency, the Treasury Department, the Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearm Agency and the U.S. Customs officials that deal with border violations while the Immigration and Naturalization Services deal with illegal immigrants. However this specialization of the diffe rent policing agencies has its drawbacks. Problems can arise due to jurisdictional issues, when what one should really take care of is the upholding and maintenance of the law (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The P.R.C. employs around 2 million police officers, of which most work is small offices that serve communities of roughly 10,000 citizens. The main policing agency in the P.R.C. is the Peoples Armed Police (PAP), which includes about 700,000 officers. This agency was instituted in 1983 and was formed by incorporating disbanded units of the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) on domestic defence duty and armed frontier defence and fire fighting. The rise of the PAP shows how Chinese leadership in many ways is more concerned about domestic security than foreign threats (MÃ ¼hlhahn, 2009). The PAPs main task is to deal with domestic disturbances, by acting as riot police, guarding government compounds and also foreign embassies. It usually handles border defence but is called in sometimes to back up local police. Recently it has been employed to suppress anti-government protest. The Public Security Service (PSB) is both a local police and the Chinese equivalent of the CIA in the U.S. The P. R.C. justice system also employs paramilitary armed police and more than 1 million security guards. Quasi-police force known as cheng guan also operates in China. These carry out tasks deemed unpopular by the citizens, such as collecting fines and tax money, often these are just thugs hired by the official police. In December 2008, the Chinese government announced the creation of a new special unit aimed at cracking down on gun-related crimes and organized crime such as organized prostitution, gambling, drug production and trafficking. The public security budget was raised by nearly a third in 2009 to $4.2 billion in part to address concerns about unrest in Tibet and western China and trouble brought about by unemployed workers and other problems associated with the economic crisis in 2008 and 2009 In the past, police agencies in the US have been accused of corruption and the Good-Old Boy network of hiring practices. Recently, charges of racism, racial profiling, and use of excessive force have been made by concerned citizens and organizations. Family members of crime victims often become infuriated with police for their incompetence and unwillingness to make an effort to solve crimes that affect them. Chinese police have a reputation for being corrupt and connected to smuggling. They are regarded with suspicion by ordinary Chinese, particularly in rural areas. Police have traditionally been more involved in maintaining government control than solving crimes. As for the US court system, this is a dual judiciary system, of which the two constituent parts (federal and state) function independent of each other. The federal judiciary system includes district courts, circuit courts of appeals, and the United Stated Supreme Court. The state system includes trial courts at the local and state levels, intermediate courts of appeal, and state Supreme Court (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The primary agents working along each other are the judge, prosecutor, and defence attorneys in the U.S. system. As already stated the U.S. follows the principles of Common law, that were inherited from English jurisprudence. This tradition holds that a decision taken in court is always made on the basis of the Rule of Precedent. This means that each case previously resolved serves as reference and guide for new cases. New aspects of law may be determined or discovered and thus a precedent arises. The U.S. justice system allows for presumption of innocence until proven guilty, plea-bargaining, trial by jury, and the right to a speedy trial (Gaines and Miller, 2006). Such aspects make the justice system in the U.S. more flexible and makes it easier to meet citizens the needs. The penal system of the U.S., like the judicial system, branches into federal, state and local levels. The prison system is supported by governmental funds, in the form of tax revenue from federal (corporate income), state (sales) and local (taxes) revenues. Is also receives funding through Inter-governmental transfer, in the form of federal grants and state grants. Sentences in the US justice system tend to be significantly longer than in China and many states have adopted the three strikes law which forces judges to sentence a defendant to life imprisonment for their third felony offense. The penal system in the US is facing major problems due to overcrowding, gang and drug activity within the prisons, the imprisonment of mentally ill individuals, increase of sex offenders, and extremely violent offenders. Privatization of the prison systems is being adopted in many regions of the country as prisons are becoming more and more overcrowded. Juvenile offenses and crimes in the US vary in each state and all are dependent on the age of the defendant. For example, in New York State, a juvenile status is considered if the individual is more than 7 but less than 16 year old, unless it is murder then the individual can be 13 or if charged with rape then the defendant can be as young as 14. Contrary to the French system, the tendency in New York and possibly in the rest of the US is to treat the offender as an adult and increase the levels of punishment including incarceration. Gaines, Larry K. and Roger Le Roy Miller, Criminal Justice in Action (2006). http://www.project.org/info.php?recordID=33 http://www.lectlaw.com/files/int10.htm Klaus MÃ ¼hlhahn, Criminal Justice in China: A History, Harvard University Press (2009)