Application Of Activity Theory Implemented In Information Systems Psychology Essay

Application Of Activity Theory Implemented In Information Systems Psychology Essay Activity theory is a theory of understanding the unobservable mental processes of the human, and their response and perception to a stimulus. Philosophers have established many definitions and explanation of activity theory, however it can be most clearly defined as: Activity theory theorizes that when individuals engage and interact with their environment, production of tools results. These tools are exteriorized forms of mental processes, and as these mental processes are manifested in tools, they become more readily accessible and communicable to other people, thereafter becoming useful for social interaction (Kim 2010 p:1). The activity theory has been made well known especially in the field on psychology by the likes of Leontev, Vygotsky, Luria (1977) and recently Engestrom (1999). Its main use it that of an explanatory nature in multiple disciplines, to enable us to gain a clear understanding of they way systems work and how change may occur. In this study we will introduce the origin of the activity theory, its framework and constructs, and identify its use. Furthermore we will analyse the activity theory from a philosophical, ontological and epistemological perspective. To analyse the application of the activity theory, we look at three examples from which we will draw out the theoretical framework. History of the activity theory The origin of the Activity Theory lies within the work of Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky (1896 1934). Vygotsky spent his time discovering the relationship between words and consciousness, and studied human mental development (Vygosky, 1986). In the 1920s, Lev Vygotsky worked on a way to develop a psychological theory based on Marxist philosophy and thinking (OLeary, 2010). During the 1920s and 30s, Vygotsky worked alongside two other psychologists, Alexander Romanvich Luria (1902 1977) and Aleksei Nickolaev Leontev (1903 1979), together they formed the Troika (Radzikhovkii Khomskaya, 1981). The work of these three psychologists were developed and carried out at the Institute of Experimental Psychology and the Krupslcaya Academy of communist Education (Radzikhovkii Khomskaya, 1981). Luria was one of Vygotskys students and worked on this project with Vygotsky. After working with Vygotsky on this theory, Leontev went on to extend Vygotskys work develop a more practical structure of the Activity Theory, which only became well known in the 1990s once it was translated form Russian into English (Levy, 2008). As mentioned above, the Activity Theory was developed by the philosophers, namely; Vygotsky, Luria and Leontev (Engestrom, 1999). Three general themes are present throughout the research done on the Activity Theory by the three Philosophers: The use of genetic or developmental method. The claim that higher mental functioning in the individual emerges out of social processes. The claim that human social and psychological processes are fundamentally shaped by cultural tools or mediation means. (Vygotsky, 1978). Figure 1 below shows the basic structure of the Activity Theory developed by Vygotsky. Tool Subject Object Figure 1: The basic schematic of mediated Activity as developed by Vygotsky (1978, 1987 p:201). General overview of the activity theory Although the Activity theory originates from the three Russian psychologists, a key set of structures were developed in the late 1970s by Engestrom (1970), which was used to explain the Activity Theory in a more clear and informative manner. This frame work was developed and used over multiple disciplines. The following quote by various philosophers provide a brief explanation of the Activity Theory; According to Hasan and Crawford (2003 p:155), Activity theory is based on the idea that human activity is a dialectic relationship subject (person) and object (person). This means that the relationship is not harmonious and that human perform actions with a predetermined outcome in mind. These actions however are influence d by tools, words, or cultural signs (Hasan and Crawford, 2003). Engestrom (1989 p:30) philosophically describe Activity Theory as a system of collaborative human practices and sees it as a generator of a constantly and continuously emerging context. Morten et al (2002 p:158) specified that the individuals interaction with other humans and their surroundings leads to thoughts and perceptions. Thus, Morten derived two types of activities (Levy 2008); Goal directed activities: the action occurs due to the goal that was set. Goal derived activities: an action occurs before goals are set. Shchedrovitsky (1995) on the other hand noted two approaches in his study of the Activity Theory; Formulation of the activity: This means that the individual carries out a set task or activity. Activity as an attribute of individuals: where the subject is the cause of the activity. When comparing Morten and Shchedrovitskys approaches we can see that they are alike, Mortens goal directed activities and Shchedrovitskys formulation of activities are alike as individuals do not have control over the activity to be performed. The goal derived activity and activity as an attribute is the same as the individual makes the decision of what and how the activity will be carried out. Theoretical constructs of the activity theory After Leontev expanded on Vygotskys theory, a modern philosopher, Engestrom developed a general theoretical construct in 1987 for the Activity theory; there are various other structures that were developed to explain Activity Theory which will be discussed below. Engestroms Structure of Activity According Yrjo Engestrom (1987) the activity theory is composed of 8 elements that interact with each other to achieve a specific goal. Activity and Tasks: an activity is an action that performed on an object to achieve an outcome or a goal. This activity may contain numerous steps or task that may or may not lead to achievement of the ultimate goal (Barthelmess and Anderson, 2003). Subject: subjects refer to the person that carries out the activity. The subject may play a specific role in completing a task, but is ultimately part of a group or team doing an activity. Object: the object is that which becomes transformed in the process of the activity and is motivated by a goal (OLeary, 2010). Outcome: the outcome is what happens after a task or activity is completed, it may or not obtain the object or goal (OLeary, 2010). Community: the community is composed of all the people or subjects and objects involved in the activity being performed (OLeary, 2010). Tools: tolls refer to physical and mental tools. They determine the way people interact with reality. They may limit peoples reactions or help them by enabling them to do things they previously could not (OLeary, 2010). Rules are guidelines, conventions, codes etc. that are usually set up by the organisation for a specific activity (OLeary, 2010). Division of labour: includes the hierarchical structure in the organisation and how activities are broken down into tasks and divided among members of the organisation (OLeary, 2010). The Activity Theory framework can be diagrammatically summarised as follows: Figure 2: The structure of an activity. Source: Engestrom, 1987 p:342. Drawing conclusions form the above framework, it is evident that a pattern occurs in the analogy of the Activity Theory of most philosophers. The Activity Theory can thus be explained as an explanatory theory that enables us to understand, identify and acknowledge strengths and weaknesses in a system. With the use of Activity Theory, a subject performs an activity on an object to reach an outcome. The activity in influenced by a tool(s) and the outcome driven by a goal. However, there are rules that govern how these tasks and activities are performed, and how tasks are divided among participants. These participants for the community of the activity, it includes everyone that was directly involved in the activity. Bendy et al. Units of Analysis The activity theory is based on cognitive of perceptive actions and the analysis there of (Bendy et al 2000). In general, the activity theory is composed of 5 units of analysis: Activity Task Action Operation Function Block Activity and tasks are objects of study as they are composed of assorted units with complex internal structures that represent particular kinds of activities focused to achieve terminal goals. Actions, operations and functional blocks emerge as units of analysis. Activities have intermediate couscous goals. Theories related to the activity theory Two theories have shown to be prominent that relate to the activity theory, namely the Information Systems Development (ISD) model and the Activity Analysis and Development (ActAd) Model. The activity theory is an explanatory theory that gives us a clear indication of the current situation and its problems, whereas the ISD model and ActAd is designed to carry out solutions and bring about change in systems. According to the paper written by Korpela et.al (Information Systems as an Activity), the ISD model and the ActAd model are interlinked where the ISD model is used as a universal work activity, with influence from ActAd as a theoretical framework. ActAD describes an activity as whole unit, comprised of networks and smaller activities or tasks, which is almost identical to the framework of the activity theory, Mursu et.al (2007). Korpela et.al explains the ISD model as a method in which an activity is manipulated by tools such as analysis, design, implementation, introduction and sustained support, as well as process management. In theoretical terms, the ISD model can be easily analyzed by using the activity theory as a framework, as all elements of the activity theory are interlinked forming a network for the interaction of activities. The use of activity theory and the diciplines in which it is used Psychology was the first discipline to use the activity theory, specifically a Russian psychologist Leontev (1977). Leontevs initial concern was the nature of the human consciousness and understanding the fundamental psychological basis of human behaviour through the study of linguistics, mental disabilities and its phenomena. In Engerstrorms article, Activity theory as framework for analysing and redesigning work the activity theory is defined as a multi-disciplinary approach, as it cuts across disciplines ranging from economics, sociology, psychology, ergonomics and criminology. Engerstrom (2000) describes the theory as drawing on psychological notions of mental processes, and makes use of institutions and communities rather than individuals as their units of analysis. Activity theory is directly proportional to learning and doing, in the sense that one cannot exist without the other; they are driven or initiated by a goal (Rohrer-Murphy and Jonassen, 1999). During the 19th century, social science was defined as the study of human behaviour within societies. An authentic definition of social science given by Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber: A society is made up of individuals are a major unit of analysis within a society, entitles them as primary architects of modern social science. With the use of the activity theory, we can predict the outcome based on background information and existing knowledge. This will enable us to gain a clear understanding of the varying behaviours and mental processes of people within a society. In criminology, activity theory was proposed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson in 1979 (Miller, 2006: 81). It was a response to attempt to analyse the then increasing crime rate of the United States during 1947 to 1974 (Cohen, 1979: 588).during that period, the crime rate was increasing and economic conditions were deteriorating, the activity theory was thus popular at that time as it was the only theory that could explain the circumstances. Once the analysis was complete, Cohen and Felson created a theory that was based on the rational choice model, in which people make rational decisions in ways that increases their advantages, and decreases their disadvantages as much as possible (Akers, 2004: 26). It is thus evident as stated above that the activity theory is versatile and can be used across multiple disciplines. It is an explanatory theory that enables the development of change and can be implemented in countless situations. Philosophical perspective of Activity theory According to Kutti (1991), activity theory is the Philosophical framework for studying different forms of human praxis as developmental processes both individual and social levels interlinked at the same time In other words the activity is not classified as a methodology but as a philosophy that looks at different forms of human natures acceptable practices, as developmental processes both on a social and individual level simultaneously. This philosophy is further described by Engestrom (1987) as a structural framework focused at surpassing all known dichotomies of micro-macro mental and material, observation and intervention in analysis and redesign of work. The Philosophical views deals with problems connected with knowledge, values, reason, mind and language (Teichmann and Evans 1999).Philosophical perceptions of activity theory found its origins in 1987, the birth of the society for research that was based on Activity Theory (ISCRAT) foundation. The Activity Theory was developed to solve problems for four main areas include Psychology of play, learning, cognition and child development (Becker and Niehaves 2007). Further more there where key outcomes or focus areas; language acquisitions and experimental development, these were also linked to educational institutes and schools. The activity theory discovers deep underlying concepts; the study of these concepts takes us through a process of transcendence. Thus it is important to realise that individuals have a variety of societal circumstances, secondly it creates ways to understand change, and thirdly the concept of labour and the role it plays. Labour comprises of the use and making of tools and the conditions that affect the activity. These conditions can be broken down to the functions of the process, relationship with nature, other people and the different people in the society (Engestrom 1999). Ontological perspective of Activity theory The term ontology comes from field of physiological concerned with study of being or existence. In computer science and information science ontology designed to enable the use of knowledge in a specific area whether physical or virtual. Ontology defines concepts, relationships and other distinctions that are relevant for development in a precise area (Liu and Tamer 2009). Ontology and activity theory is useful for theoretical and methodical lengths characterising and analysing and designing for a particular unit. The transition to meditated activity, fundamentally changes all psychological operations. The use of tools limitless broadens the range of activity within which new psychological functions may operate (OLeary 2010) As shown in the above figure. Activity Theory ontological perspective branches off the core disciplines of activity theory and looks at the tools, rules, division of labour, community, subject, object and outcomes in depth. The Ontology view will result in areas of meditational tools and artefacts, norms, tasks and roles, groups, individual, goals and results. Ontology offers a deeper and descriptive understanding of collaborative learning. (Barros et.al 2002). (Barros 2011 p:2) Epistemological perspective of Activity theory Epistemology is a philosophical study of what is required in order to have rational benefits and knowledge. Both traditional methods of philosophy and modern methods of cognitive science have broadened the understanding of epistemology (Cruz, 2011). Epistemology is an attempt to make sense of the possibility, nature and limits of human intellectual achievement. A key focus is to try to understand what is really known or believe reasonable. Epistemology aims to understand general and ever-present elements of human enquiry such as perceptual knowledge or inductive inference. Epistemology aims to investigate specific areas of knowledge or rational beliefs. To understand the nature of explanation in cognitive science ultimately the use of epistemology is present (Thorne 2005). When one relates the elements of Epistemology to the Activity Theory we can deduce that possibilities relate to the outcome of the activity and the limits referred to the rules that govern these activities. If we look at Activity Theory from an Epistemological perspective, its purpose is to describe a situation and how outcomes are achieved through the use of knowledge and resources, same as tools found in at. Activity theory thus realise what we know based on our knowledge and experiences, and gives us clear understanding thereof. Part b Activity Theory as an Analytical Tool: A Case Study of IS Development for an Anti-Retroviral Treatment Clinic in South Africa Does Activity Theory assist in highlighting challenges faced by the ART clinic with their current IS and assist in representing what users require from IS? The above the question is that which the case study seeks to answer. The ActAD model was used to highlight work and communication activities for which IS was needed. It was used to investigate the quality of data and illustrate importance of linking IS development and work practises. Research methods used were observation, structured and semi-structured interviews. These were used to help with understanding on how IS are used and also to understand reasons why it is not used. Value and performance of current IS needed to be researched if a potential explanation could be found. A number of techniques were used to collect data and to develop the process flow, these included the following: Use of available info, common knowledge, published docs and literature study on health info. Physical observations of the current process to watch and record the processes in the current systems Structured, semi-structured, unstructured interviews with various stakeholders were held. Either face to face or by email. After the collaborations with stakeholders and noting of concerns and viewpoints towards the current HIS, the ActAD model was used to represent the current IS and also the desired IS. Activity Theory as an Analytical tool: Actors and subjects: ART staff clinic that produce healthcare for HIV/AIDS patients requiring ART Means of work, the instruments and the facilities: computer, excel spreadsheet, docs in patient files, statistical data and medical instruments Object: unwieldy patients Means of co-ordination and communication division of work, rules, etc.: communications via phones or verbally, the rules stipulated and applied and use of captured data. Researchers role was to observe current situation by focusing on object, the means of work, instruments and facilities and how the actors and subjects made use of data collected. There are also exterior players illustrated by governmental and non-governmental organizations. Usefulness of Activity Theory: Highlighting the challenges The need for change: computer network and connectivity is lacking and thus a computer-based IS would be needed to aid the data incarceration, analysis and reporting. Current HIS does not support management functions or work processes of the clinic. IS as part of the work activity: work processes need to be streamlined if a computerised IS can assist with improving data quality and help improve decision making. Some of the improvement would include: Segregation of duties Verification of data Standardisation of ART clinic IS. Role of different stakeholders: the greatest challenge is the need for all the stakeholders to agree on a flexible IS that meets the minimum data requirements of the parties involved. Need for on-going support: funding for IT and training, ongoing upholding and support will be required once the system has been designed and implemented. This will lead to enhanced quality of healthcare services if it is part of proper admin and resource management.

The wonderful food

I must confess that there is much of Japan that I do not know about.   What I do know of Japan comes from my childhood and from my brief stay in Japan in the past.   As a child I was always fascinated by the magic of Japanese television; shows such as Godzilla (Gojira) and Space Giants (Ambassador Magma) would fill up my afternoon television slots.In class, I would often share the beauty of Japan with my class by creating posters on Japan in the hope that others could enjoy the magic and beauty that Japan possesses.   Needless to say, the time I spent in Okinawa not only altered my preconceived notions of what Japan really is but the experience also exposed me to a beauty unlike any that I have ever seen in my life.My Okinawa experience is an experience that I will never forget.   There is something for all the senses:   The wonderful food (the sushi, the sashimi, the colorful and scrumptious bento meals); the warmth and friendliness of the people around; the colorful sight s from billboards and store signs; the chorus that one hears from the people on the street yakking on their cellular phones and of course the overwhelming love that felt for Japan.There is no other place in the world that seamlessly and effortlessly incorporates such high tech innovations and gadgetry with the quiet yet powerful beauty of ancient Japan all in one place.While all of the sights, sounds and delicacies were indeed quite an experience, it was not until I came to a brief understanding of the history of Okinawa that I was able to truly enjoy the experience that I had there.Okinawa is historically a separate nation, possessing a distinct culture and language unlike that on the mainland.   Okinawa has a different language from that of Japan, using what is called Ryukyuan, though its use has been slowly declining over the years.Aside from the difference in language, the difference in culture can be seen in the different architecture that one encounters while exploring Okina wa.   There are a number of Gusuku’s or castles that still abound in the area.   The houses are also different because quite a number of them feature a shisa on the roof which closely resembles a dragon.   This is due to the Chinese influence which has also found its way into the local culture.Okinawa is not known to be a tourist haven for foreigners and has been primarily developed to cater to the local tourists. As such, one is expected to know a little of the local language and dialects in order to travel around.Once one is able to overcome the language barrier there are virtually no limits to the number of tourist sights that one can come across.   As mentioned earlier, the unique architecture in the area can be seen in the Shureimon Gate, which built in the 16th century, is a traditional symbol of Okinawa.   The Shurijo castle is also a sight to behold as its imposing faà §ade greets the visitors who drop by.The local tour guide gives a wonderful tale of how t his used to be the center of all Okinawan culture.   Aside from the castles, there is also the Tama Udun Royal Mausoleum, which was built in 1501 to house the remains of King Sho En.On the whole, my Okinawa experience was quite a revelation.   I never expected to see much of other cultures infused into the local culture given the history of Japan.   It was refreshing to see bits and pieces of Chinese and Thai culture in not only the sights but in most of the foods and music as well.The magnificent buildings and the general cleanliness of the city of Naha is also amazing given the tourist traffic that it serves every year.   Despite the influx of a number of tourists, Okinawa has still managed to maintain its own unique culture and combined with the beautiful scenery that abounds around every corner it is truly a wonderful experience for anyone, local or foreign.

Revenge Is a Dish Best Served Cold: a Comparison of Fowler

Revenge is a Dish Best Served Cold: A Comparison of Fowler and Snopes Matt Fowler and Abner Snopes are both male characters that possess a motivation for revenge. Some people can only feel better about an unfortunate situation or circumstance by seeking revenge. Such a person would believe that until the other party feels the same pain as they have, only then would justice have been served. We live amongst a society where acts of revenge are quite common and most perceive them to be of a â€Å"natural human emotion. People feel different emotions and think different thoughts on a daily basis and throughout life as we grow and change. Things do not always work out in our favor or the way we have planned for them to. While both men are in two completely different circumstances; the motivation for revenge is mutual. In the case of Matt Fowler, we see a man who has lived his life the best way he knows how. He is a loving father who raised his children well and he continues to execute th is role by attempting to guide his son, Frank, in the right direction when it comes to the woman he is in love with: a married mother of two small boys.It is clear to Matt that Frank is deeply in love and there is nothing and no one that can hold him back from following is heart; regardless to how dangerous the situation may be. Matt is supportive of his son; while pointing out to Frank the dire circumstance that he and his lover are in. The bottom line is that she is a married woman and her soon-to-be ex husband has already exhibited violence towards Frank before. (Killings,105) This heartfelt and much needed conversation is shared between the two men while on a father and son road trip. Dubus 107) Matt and his wife wake up to any parents worse nightmare: their son has been murdered. From that point forward, Matt feels as if he is wandering through life as opposed to living life as he previously have before the death of his son. Matt is struggling between the good man he has always been and his feelings of seeking revenge on his son's killer. There will be no inner peace for him until his son's murderer is dealt the same fate. Matt will eventually act on this urge in a thorough and planned out execution.We have all seen the news programs with families pleating and mourning over the loss of loved ones through unnecessary violence. Many times, law enforcement feels the need to intervene and remind the heartbroken family members and friends that it is best to allow the law to seek justice; as opposed to seeking revenge and continuing the unnecessary violence. As adults, we understand the logic behind this; however, as a grieving parent, whose life may seem be over and pointless without their child in it, this emotion can invade one's soul and not lessen until that emotional fix for revenge is received.Matt Fowler is a man who goes through these roller coaster emotions and eventually acts out on his thoughts. (Dubus 108) Abner Snopes is a man who comes from a dif ferent era and exhibits different values and affections for his children than Matt Fowler does. They do not share many similarities as men and the only thing they have in common is that they are both fathers seeking revenge. Abner Snopes is a character that we see in today's society quite often.He is a man who does not abide by the laws, is not a good role model or example for his children, and when his actions catch up to him and it is time to face the consequences of his decisions, he is not man enough to accept the punishment. Our society is filled with people such as Abner Snopes. These people tend to go through life making selfish decisions and never learning their lesson. They tend to blame others for the reasons they are guilty of unthinkable acts and later continue their reign of terror because now they have something/someone knew to blame for their demise.Their children are eventually faced with two options: 1. Be like my father and repeat the viscous cycle or, 2. Be a bett er man then my father and learn from his mistakes. Abner Snopes is a man who is rough around the edges and shows no mercy when it comes to his guilty pleasure of burning barns. As a father, he attempts to convince his youngest son that he must be loyal to his family because blood is thicker than water and without doing so, there will come a time in his life when no family will be there for him since he didn’t remain loyal to them. Faulkner 505) Abner knows that his young son is a honest boy who does not support his father's barn burning ways; as a result, Abner attempts to â€Å"teach† the boy that being loyal to one's family, regardless if they're right or wrong is the honorable thing to do. Eventually, tried for intentionally damaging a rug by rubbing his dung covered feet on it, and being sentenced to the lesser punishment due to a lack of evidence, Abner is infuriated as opposed to grateful that things didn’t end up worse.He, in return, sets out to burn down the rug owners barn. His son knows this act will be wrong and he cannot stand idly by and allow his father to continue doing what he does. He makes the decision to turn his back on his father and warn the barn owner that his father is coming to burn down his barn. (Faulkner 512) later, the boy hears shots fired and knows he can never return back to his family to deal with the outcome of his actions. One is left to think he continues to live a life of his own and become a better man than his father ever was.

Impact Of National Debt And The Economic Growth Of A Country

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Negotiation and Resistance Point - 6335 Words

Fill in the Blank Questions 1. Distributive bargaining is basically a competition over who is going to get the most of a limited resource. 2. Whether or not one or both parties in a distributive bargaining situation achieve their objectives will depend upon the strategies and tactics they employ. 3. The resistance point is the point beyond which a person will not go and would rather break off negotiations. 4. The spread between the resistance points is called the bargaining range. 5. A positive bargaining range occurs when the buyers resistance point is above the sellers. 6. Alternatives are important because they give the negotiator power to walk away from any negotiation when the emerging deal is not very good. 7.†¦show more content†¦T F 34. The more you can do to convince the other party that his or her costs of delay or aborting negotiations will be costly, the more likely he or she will be to establish a modest resistance point. T F 35. The first step for a negotiator completing a distributive bargaining negotiation is to obtain information about the other partys outcome values and resistance points. T F 36. In calculated incompetence, the negotiator is intentionally given false or misleading information to reveal to the other party. T F 37. Selective presentation can be used to lead the other party to form the desired impression of your resistance point or to open up new possibilities for agreement that are more favorable to the presenter than those that currently exist. T F 38. Studies indicate that negotiators who make low or modest opening offers get higher settlements than do those who make extreme opening offers. T F 39. Parties feel better about a settlement when negotiations involve a progression of concessions. T F 40. If a major concession has been made on a significant point, it is expected that the return offer will be on the same item or one of similar weight and comparable magnitude. T F 41. 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According to Tripp, â€Å"The well prepared negotiator knows the playing field and the players, is seldom surprised, and can promptly capitalize on opportunities.† In the first part of the negotiation checklist, self-assessment is necessary in order to determine what youRead MoreNegotiation and Team Owner1259 Words   |  6 Pagesmanager. c. The name of the commentator? The commentator in the video is Dr. Margaret Neale. d. Which character recently earned an MBA? What was his or her role in the story? Carla has recently earned an MBA and her role is aid in negotiation. 2. Why is there no team in the Morgan Hills stadium? The teams owner was died and the heirs sold team. 3. The Narrator says, â€Å"no one should accept a deal that makes him or her worse off,† Yet, she says, this often happens. Give two reasonsRead MoreNegotiation by Lewicki1690 Words   |  7 Pages Book Summary of Negotiation by Roy J. Lewicki, David M. Saunders, and John W. Minton Citation: Negotiation, 3rd edition, Roy J. 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Social Engineering Is A Powerful Tool Used By Cyber Criminals

Social Engineering It is the manipulation of people through deception, lies, fabricated story and tricks. They influence and persuade people to obtain information with or without the use of technology. Social engineering is a powerful tool used by cyber criminals’ especially on seniors because of their level of trust. They aim at collecting your confidential information and later use it against you. Password, Account number – credit card, debit cards, employee ID, and full name, date of birth, email address, social insurance number, driver license number and telephone numbers are normally collected Knowing the person you are dealing with, and the tactics they use is important to overcome them, that is why user awareness and education is†¦show more content†¦Protection against Social Engineering †¢ Never give confidential information through emails, phones or to unknown person †¢ Don’t click on a website unknown to you or download or open email attachment from unknown senders. †¢ Before clicking on links in emails and on websites watch for misspellings, @ signs and suspicious domain names. †¢ Make it a habit to periodically check your bank statement to see if they are anomalies or fraudulent transactions. †¢ Use a strong password and personal verification questions. †¢ Reject requests for online tech support from strangers no matter how legitimate they may appear †¢ Avoid being greedy on the web for offers you have not made or responding to any offers made over the phone or via text messages. †¢ Pay attention to website URL. Sometimes online fraudsters make slight changes to URLs in order to direct messages to their own spoofed sites †¢ Secure your computer with anti-virus software and regularly update software and operating systems †¢ Verify that a lock icon is on your browser address bar when submitting payment or confidential information. †¢ Always shred and/or destroy prior to disposal sensitive and confidential information you do not need. †¢ Be suspicious of unsolicited emails †¢ Be cautious in situations where a party refuses to provide basic contact information †¢ Verify incoming checks and ensure clearance prior to transferring any money by wire †¢ Establish call-back procedures to clients and vendorsShow MoreRelatedSocial Engineering Is A Powerful Tool Used By Cyber Criminals1767 Words   |  8 Pagesinfluence and persuade people to obtain information with or without the use of technology. 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Police fragmentation free essay sample

The Nature of Policing in the United States will constantly change based on certain events that happen. The government will always look for ways to adjust, trying to make policing more efficient, fair, and effective. Unlike policing in other countries, the structure of policing in the United States is extremely fragmented. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, there are currently 21 ,OOO federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies in the United States. In different levels of the government, here are thousands of different agencies that are responsible for specific tasks. Due to a high amount of different law enforcement agencies, it will always raise a concern on what works and what does not work. In recent years, the structure of American policing has dramatically changed. In todays society crimes such as drugs, murders, rapes and cyber crimes are at an all time high and much care and respect has to be given to the chain of command. From 1980 to now law enforcement agencies have had to reform and reconstruct how day to day business is conducted. There must be clear and concise lines drawn as to who is in the chain of command so that proper actions can be taken when needed. Heightened awareness of new era crimes has drastically evolved in the last thirty years, factors such as gang activity, increased drug use and internet crimes have changed law enforcement as a whole leading to policy and procedure changes. In the 1980s and the early 1990s gang and drug activity became an epidemic and law enforcement agencies were forced to crimes. Although gangs already existed, they seemed to have become more widespread throughout the nation and they were even emerging in small ommunities. During this era the drug trafficking played a major role in the increased gang activity in already existing larger gangs it also played a role in the creation of many smaller gangs, and no drug has had as much of an impact. Other horrific events have shaped the way law enforcement is now structured, for example, the terrorist attack on 9/1 1 has had a major impact on policing. Immediately, the department of Homeland Security was created initially to protect American citizens from the possibility of terrorist attacks and ways to counter react to them during the ear of 2002. Law enforcement agencies at different levels of government have different responsibilities and tasks that they must accomplish. The local police are the most visible to the public and they include municipal police departments, county police departments, and county sheriffs. These departments have the broadest functions, enforcing criminal laws, maintaining order, and reducing conflict. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, there were approximately 14,000 municipal police forces in the United States. Based on the local level, there is also law nforcement at the county level. These agencies are titles sheriffs office, and these departments serve all three branches of law enforcement. They are responsible for providing bail, serving summonses, and other civil law matters. Like the local law enforcement agency, state law enforcement agencies are also divided into two categories. Almost half of the state law enforcement agency is mostly responsible for traffic enforcement on the state highways. The remainder generally has other law enforcement responsibilities. State level police agencies include U. S. ttorneys which erve as the nations principal litigators under the direction of the attorney general. Most states also include other law enforcing organizations with limited powers, such as harbor police, airport police, school district police, etc. In general, state agencies are responsible for providing police services in unincorporated areas and small towns. Over the years, federal law enforcement has expanded with the idea that many crimes span state border s. The government no longer thinks of crimes as being committed at a single location within a single state. There are about 70 law nforcement agencies at the federal level. At the federal level, the responsibilities are more specific and defined by federal law. They are authorized, typically by Congress, to enforce specific laws or attend specific situations. After 9/1 1, many FBI agents were switched from their traditional law enforcement activities to anti-terrorist initiatives. They possess authority that is given to them under limited parts of the United States Code. In November 2002, Congress enacted legislation to create a new Department of Homeland Security. Other agencies include the Department of Treasury, Department of Justice, Department of Transportation, etc. In general, they all these agencies were created in order to centralize the administration and coordination of many existing agencies. Reluctance of Congress to empower any one agency with too much federal law enforcement authority prevents a national police. The United States system of policing is very unique compared to other countries. Many people believe that the American system of policing is extremely fragmented and loosely coordinated, which leads it to being ineffective and agencies in the same geographic area. This may lead to lack of information sharing among different agencies and agencies may compete rather than cooperate among one another. Second, fragmentation of responsibility can also lead to crime displacement. Third, a serious problem of duplication of services arises. Patrick Murphy, former police commissioner in several American cities, also suggested that many small communities are policed by a small amount of untrained individuals. Murphy argues that the small police agencies should be eliminated and that larger police organizations should be consolidated. The fragmented nature of the American law enforcement agency causes poor communication, lack of cooperation between police agencies and poor coordination. This may even lead to victims and offenders to get away with the crime they committed. On the other hand, many people may argue that the highly fragmented state of policing may not be such a bad idea. Small police departments can also be very efficient, for example, it puts more officers on the street to perform usual police services. With many more smaller police agencies, they are able to deliver more personalized services, be more flexible, ustomize strategies and have local control. Separate law enforcement agencies with specific tasks, for example, counter-terrorist agencies will be able to focus on specific terrorist issues which make them more reliable. The fragmentation of police was created in order to centralize the administration and coordination of many existing agencies. Reluctance of Congress to empower any one agency with too much power prevents a national police. This allows officers to be more specialized in their specific tasks. As a result, there are two major remedies for fragmentation. Consolidation is an alternative to fragmentation in a sense of consolidating small agencies into larger ones. This can improve communication and cooperation between police agencies. Another alternative to police fragmentation is contracting. This will allow small agencies to contract with larger agencies for specific services, for example, the Jail system. With contracting small agencies with larger agencies, the coordination between the two forces can improve the way we deal with specific issues. In retrospect, the structure of United States policing has constantly changed over the years. Each major crime has caused the structure of our policing system to change and adapt to the problems that are being faced by the United States. It is critical that law enforcement continually work on effective strategies, strengthen capabilities, and maintain collaborative workable relationships within the communities they serve. Although, these law enforcement agencies may have different missions and operations they all attempt to coordinate law enforcement operations as closely as the law permits. Canterbury, Chuck. The Future of Law Enforcement in the United States of America.